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UNITED STATES OF AMERltfA. 



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THE ANIMALS ENTER THE ARK. 

PrONTISPIECe "STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS.' 



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IF8RY 



OF THE 



BlBLlB^RMMli 



(^ Wcccvipfion of f ^e 

Igafiif ant (S^bcb of el^eri? filing 

Creature mentioned in t^e ^cn^jfures, 



Explanation of Passages in the Old and New Testament in 

WHICH reference IS MADE TO THEM. 



AUTHOR OF "HOMES WITHOUT HANDS," 
"THE ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY," ETC, 

1^ 300 ILLUSTRATIONS. 




PUBLISHED AT THE OFFICE OF 

CHARLES FOSTER'S PUBLICATIOJ^S, 

No. 118 South Seventh Street, 

PHILADELPHIA, PA. 




WAR-HORSES AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CHARIOT. 

See page 307. 

Coi»XBiGin\ 1S8S, BY W. A. Foster. 



T I 






* PREFACE 



Owing to the different conditions of time, language, country, 
and race under which the various books of the Holy Scriptures 
were written, it is impossible that they should be rightly under- 
stood at the present day without some study of the customs and 
manners of Eastern peoples, as well as of the countries in which 
they lived. 

The Oriental character of the scriptural writings causes them to 
abound with metaphors and symbols taken from the common life 
of the time. 

They contain allusions to the trees, flowers, and herbage, the 
creeping things of the earth, the fishes of the sea, the birds of 
the air, and the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the 
deserts and forests. 

Unless, therefore, we understand these writings as those under- 
stood them for whom they were written, it is evident that we shall 
misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them. 

The field which is laid open to us is so large that only one de- 
partment of Natural History — namely. Zoology — can be treated in 
this work, although it is illustrated by many references to other 
branches of Natural History, to the physical geography of Pales- 
tine, Egypt, and Syria, the race-character of the inhabitants, and 
historical parallels. 

The importance of understanding the nature, habits, and uses of 
the animals which are constantly mentioned in the Bible, cannot be 
overrated as a means of elucidating the Scriptures, and without 
this knowledge we shall not only miss the point of innumerable 
passages of the Old and New Testaments, but the words of our 
Lord Himself will often be totally misinterpreted, or at least lose 
part of their significance. 

The object of the present work is therefore, to take in its proper 
succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures, 
and to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to 
understand all the passages in which it is mentioned. 




SHEPHEKD lEADING SHEEP AND GOATS TO IHE.E FOLD IN THE KOCK. 

See page 191. 



THE AUTHOR 



The Rev. J. G. Wood is a native of London, England. He was 
educated at Oxford University, and has long been known, both in 
England and America, as not only a learned and accurate writer 
on Natural History, but a popular one as well, having the hapi)y 
faculty of making the results of scientific study and painstaking 
observation, interesting and instructive to all classes of readers. 

He has published a number of works on the most familiar 
departments of the history of animals, designed to awaken popular 
interest in the study. Their titles are " Sketches and Anecdotes 
of Animal Life ;" " Common Objects of the Seashore and Coun- 
try;" "My Feathered Friends;" "Homes Without Hands"— 
being a description of the habitations of animals, — and the 
" Illustrated Natural History," a book which is widely known 
both in England and America as a standard work of great value. 
It has given the author celebrity, and has caused him to be con- 
sidered an eminent authority on the subject which it treats. 

It is evident, from these facts, that it would be difiicult to find 
a man better qualified than Mr. Wood, to write a book describing 
the animals mentioned in the Bible. 

Profoundly impressed with the ignorance which prevails towards 
so important a feature of the Scriptural Narrative, he has devoted 
his ripe powers and special knowledge to the work of dissipating 
it, and in this volume, not only fully describes the nature and 
habits of all the animals mentioned in the Scriptures, but tells the 
story of their relations to mankind. 

Mr. Wood is a clergyman of the Church of England, and was 
for a time connected with Christ Church, Oxford. He has devoted 
himself mainly, however, to authorship in the field which he has 
chosen, and in which he has become so well known. In his works 
he usually employs a popular style of writing, and docs not make 
scientific terms prominent. This is especially true of the " Story 
of the Bible Animals," which from its easy and interesting cha- 
racter is adapted to the comprehension of young and old. 

vii 




ANY of the pictures in this 
book are taken from the living 
animals, or from photographs 
and sketches by Eastern trav- 
ellers. 

Others represent imaginary 
scenes, or ancient historical 
events, and have been designed 



by skilful artists after careful study of the subjects, 



vui 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



[A complete Index of Subjects will be found at the end of this Volume.] 

NO. PAGE 

1. The Animals Enter the Ark 2 

2. War-Horses and Ancient Egyptian Chariot 4 

3. Shepherd Leading Sheep and Goats to their Fold in 

the Rock 6 

4. A Desert-Scene 8 

5. The Garden op Eden 19 

6. Lion Drinking at a Pool 21 

7. A Lion Kills the Prophet from Judah 22 

8. Lion and Tiger 23 

9. The Lion Replies to the Thunder . . 25 

10. Lioness and Young 27 

11. Lion Carrying Home Supplies 31 

12. African Lions 32 

13. The Lion Attacks the Herd 34 

14. The Lair of the Lion 35 

15. The Lion Listens to the Approach of the Hunter . . 39 

16. The Leopard 43 

17. Leopard Attacking a Herd of Deer 45 

18. The Leopard Leaps upon his Prey . 47 

19. Waiting 49 

20. Leopard 51 

21. Cat and KirrENs 51 

22. Cat 54 

23. Dogs in an Eastern City at Night 57 

24. Shimei Exulting over King David 59 

25. Lazarus Lying at the Rich Man's Door : 02 

26. The Death of Jezebel 63 

1* 9 



10 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

NO. PAGE 

27. Syrian Dog 64 

28. Eastern Water-Seller 68 

29. Wolves Attacking a Flock of Sheep 70 

30. Wol^t:s Chasing Deer 72 

31. The Wolf 73 

32. Wolves Attacking Wild Goats 75 

33. The Jackal 76 

34. Foxes or Jackals Devouring the Carcase of a Goat . 77 

35. A Feast in Prospect 79 

36. A I'east Secured 81 

37. A Trespasser 83 

38. Leopard Eobbed of its Prey by Hy.^nas 87 

39. Hyenas Devoltiing Bones 89 

40. Weasels 93 

41. The Biter Bit 95 

42. Badgers 99 

43. Supposed Form and Arrange:ment of the Tabernacle . 101 

44. Bears Descending the Mountains 105 

45. On the Watch 107 

46. Seeking an Outlook 109 

47. A Family Party Ill 

48. Bear 112 

49. Porcupine 113 

50. The Mole-Eat 115 

51. The Mouse 119 

52. Dagon Fallen Down before the Ark 120 

53. Mouse and Xest 121 

54. Jerboa or Leaping-Mouse 122 

55. The Fteld-Mouse . .' 123 

56. The Syrl\n Hare 127 

57. A TiiiiD Group 129 

58. Altar of Burnt-Offering .... 133 

59. The Prodigal Son Returns 134 

60. Abraha^i Offers Food to the Three Strangers .... 135 

61. Oxen Treading Out Grain 139 

62. Eastern Ox-Cart 140 



LIST OF ILL USTBA TIONS. . 1 1 



NO. 



I>.\<i 



63. The Ark of the Covenant being Drawn by Cows . . . 141 

64. Ploughing with Oxen 143 

65. MiiiALMY OF A Sacred Bull taken from an Egyptian Tomb 146 

66. Anlmals being Sold for Sacrifice in the Porch of 

THE Temple 147 

67. Jeroboam Sets up a Golden Calf at Bethel 148 

68. The Buffalo 149 

69. The Bhainsa, or Do.mestic Buffalo, and Camel Draw- 

ing the Plough 151 

70. Wild Bull or Oryx 155 

71. The Oryx 157 

72. The Unicorn 158 

73. The Bison 160 

74. Bison Killing Wolf 161 

75. The Gazelle or Boe of Scripture 163 

76. Gazelles 164 

77. The Falcon Used in Our Hunt 168 

78. The Arab is Delighted at the Success of the Hunt . 169 

79. The Gazelle 170 

80. The Addax 172 

81. The Bubale or Fallow Deer of Scripture 175 

82. Sheep 176 

83. Arabs Journeying to Fresh Pastures 178 

84. View of the Pyramids 179 

85. Jacob Meets Rachel at the Well 182 

86. Eastern Shepherd Watching his Flock 183 

87. David Gathers Stones from the Brook to Cast at 

Goliath 185 

88. An Eastern Shepherd 186 

89. Sheep Following their Shepherd . 187 

90. Ancient Sheep-Pen 190 

91. The Poor Man's Lamb 193 

92. The Rich Man's Feast 193 

93. Flocks of Sheep being taken into Jerusalem 195 

94. Sounding the Trumpets in the Year of Jubilee .... 202 

95. Ram's Horn Trumpet 203 



12 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

^O. PAGE 

96. A Lamb upon the Altar of Burnt Offering 204 

97. The Place of Sacrifice 206 

98. The Chamois 211 

99. Chajhois Defending its Young 213 

100. Chasing the Aoudad . 214 

101. The Mouflon 216 

102. Jacob Deceives his Father and Takes Esau's Blessing 218 

103. The Angel Appears to Gtideon 219 

104. Eastern Water-Carriers with Bottles made of Goat- 

Skin 224 

105. GrOATS on the March 228 

106. Herd of GtOats Attacked by a Lion 231 

107. Arabian Ibex, the Wild Goat of Scripture 236 

108. The Deer 238 

109. Red Deer 239 

110. Fallow Deer or Hind of Scripture 240 

111. A Quiet Spot 241 

112. Red Deer and Fawn 243 

113. The Leader of the Herd 245 

114. The Watchful Doe 247 

115. A Kneeling Caisiel 248 

116. Jacob Leaves Laban and Returns to Canaan .... 249 

117. A Camp in the Desert 250 

118. A Grateful Shade 253 

119. Camels Laden avith Boughs 257 

120. Morning in the Desert: Starting of the Caravan . . 258 

121. The Camel Post . 261 

122. A Runaway 263 

123. An Arab Sheik Mounted Upon his Camel 264 

124. Aaron's Rod bears Almonds " 266 

125. Camel Riding 267 

126. The Deloul, or Swift Camel 268 

127. Another Mode of Riding the Cajviel 270 

128. Passing a Camel in a Narrow Street of an Eastern 

City 277 

129. Moses at the Burning Bush 278 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 13 

NO. PAGE 

130. An Arab Encampment 279 

131. On the March 281 

132. Hair of the Camel 283 

133. Camel Going through a "Needle's Eye" 285 

134. A Rest in the Desert 287 

135. Bactrian Camels Drawing Cart 289 

136. Trial of Arab Horses 292 

137. An Arab Horse of the Kochlani Breed 293 

138. The War-Horse 295 

139. Arab Horses 297 

140. Buying an Arab Horse 299 

141. The Arab's Favorite Steeds 301 

142. Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites with Chariots and 

Horses, and the Sea covers them . 302 

143. Elijah is Carried Up 304 

144. The Israelites, led by Joshua, take Jericho ...... 308 

145. Ancient Battlefield .309 

146. Chariot of State 311 

147. Ancient Egyptian Sculpture Representing a Victorious 

King in his Chariot Slaying his Enemies 313 

148. Mummy of an Egyptian King over Three Thousand 

Years Old 314 

149. Ass and Driver 315 

150. Entering Jerusalem 317 

151. Syrlan Asses 319 

152. A Street in Cairo, Egypt 322 

153. Beggar in the Streets of Cairo 324 

154. Night- Watch in Cairo 325 

155. Hunting Wild Asses 331 

156. Mules of the East 334 

157. Absalom is Caught in the Boughs of an Oak Tree . 335 

158. Daniel Refuses to Eat the King's Meat 337 

159. The Prodigal Son 340 

160. Eleazar Refuses to Eat Swine's Flesh 341 

161. A Mother and her Seven Sons Tortured for Refusing 

TO Eat Swine's Flesh 342 



14 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

^'0. PAGE 

162. The Evil Spirits enter a Herd op Swine 343 

163. Wild Boars Devouring the Carcase of a Deer ... 344 

164. Wild Boars 345 

165. Wild Boars Destroying a Vineyard 347 

166. Indian Elephant 349 

167. King Solomon, Seated upon his Throne, Receives the 

Queen of Sheba 350 

168. Indian Elephants 351 

169. The War-Elephant 355 

170. African Elephants 359 

171. Elephants' Watering-Place 361 

172. Tiger 363 

173. Tiger in the Reeds 364 

174. Head of Tiger 365 

175. The Hyrax 367 

176. Hippopotamus 372 

177. Hippopotamus Pool 375 

178. The Great Jaws of the Hippopotamus • • • 376 

179. Hippopotamus Esierging from the River .' 377 

180. HippoPOTA^rus Eating GtRASS 379 

181. A Heppopotamus-Hunt in Egypt 381 

182. Hippopotamus and Trap 384 

183. The Baboon 387 

184. The Rhesus Monkey 389 

185. Feeding the Monkeys in India 390 

186. Troubleso:me Neighbors 391 

187. Monkeys Entering a Plantation 392 

188. Slothful Monkeys 393 

189. A Privileged Race 394 

190. The Wanderoo 396 

191. The Enemy Discovered 397 

192. Bonnet Monkeys 399 

193. The Bat 401 

194. Bats' Resting-Place 403 

195. Great Fox-Headed Bat, or Flying Fox 405 

196. Cave Near the Site of Ancient Jericho 406 



LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS. 15 

NO. PAGE 

197. NiGiiT IN THE Tropics 407 

198. Leopards 408 

199. The Home of the Vulture 411 

200. The Lamaiergeier 412 

201. A Successful Defence 415 

202. Struck from a Dizzy Height 417 

203. The Vulture's Nest 418 

204. The Egyptian Vulture, or Gier Eagle 420 

205. Vultures 425 

206. The Eagle and the Hare . 430 

207. Eagles 432 

208. Eagle Keturning to the Nest with her Prey .... 435 

209. The Osprey Searching for Fish 437 

210. Snatched from the Deep : The Osprey Rises with his 

Prey 439 

211. The Kite, or Vulture of Scripture 441 

212. The Peregrine Falcon, or Gtlede 444 

213. The Lanner Falcon 446 

214. The Hawk 447 

215. Kestrel Hovering Over a Field in Search of Prey . 449 

216. The Windhover, or Kestrel 450 

217. The Barn Owl . 454 

218. The Little Owl 456 

219. Caught Napping 457 

220. Raven.— Barn Owl.— Eagle Owl 459 

221. A Fajiily Council 460 

222. The Night Hawk on the Wing 462 

223. The Night Hawk 463 

224. The Swallow 466 

225. Lost from the Flock 469 

226. The Swallow and Swift 471 

227. View of the Sea of Galilee 472 

228. The Swallow's Favorite Haunt 473 

229. Swallows at Home . 475 

230. The Hoopoe .478 

231. Eastern Housetops 479 



16 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

NO. PAG K 

232. Reading the Law to the People after the Return 

FROM Captivity 482 

233. The Blue Thrush, or Sparrow of Scripture 483 

234. The Tree Sparrow 485 

235. Sparrows • • • - 486 

236. A Forest Scene , 487 

237. The Gtreat Spotted Cuckoo 488 

238. Noah Receives the Dove 489 

239. Jesus Drives Out of the Temple the Moneychangers 

and Those who Sold Doves 493 

240. The Rock Dove 494 

241. Blue Rock Pigeons 495 

242. The Turtle Dove 497 

243. The Hen and her Brood . 498 

244. The Dojvlestic Fowl 499 

245. Poultry 500 

246. The Peacock 501 

247. Peafowl 503 

248. Feathers of the Peacock 504 

249. Partridges 505 

250. The Greek Partridge 507 

251. Partridge and their Young 508 

252. Eastern Quail 509 

253. The Quail 510 

254. Flight op Quail 515 

255. The Raven 517 

256. Elijah Fed by Ravens 518 

257. Ravens' Roosting-Place 521 

258. Ravens' Nest 522 

259. Ostrich and Nest 527 

260. Arabs Hunting the Ostrich 533 

261. The Bittern 537 

262. Bittern and Cormorant 539 

263. The Home of the Bittern 541 

264. The Heron 543 

265. The Hojvie of the Heron ,,,,,.... 545 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1 



NO. PARK 

266. The Papyrus Pi.ant 54S 

267. The Home of the Crane 549 

268. The Crane • 550 

269. The Stork 55:5 

270. Storks and their Nests 555 

271. A Nest of the White Stork 559 

272. Ibis and Gallinule 561 

273. The Pelican 568 

274. Lizards 575 

275. Tortoises 577 

276. The Dhubb and the Tortoise 578 

277. Water Tortoise 579 

278. Crocodile Attacking Horses 587 

279. A Crocodile Pool of Ancient Egypt 590 

280. Crocodiles of the Upper Nile 591 

281. Ichneumon Devouring the Eggs op the Crocodile . . 597 

282. A Crocodile Trap 599 

283. A Fight for Life 601 

284. The Cyprius, or Lizard 602 

285. The Chameleon 605 

286. Gecko and Chameleon 606 

287. The Gecko 609 

288. Serpents 611 

289. Boa Constrictor and Tiger 613 

290. Cobra and Cerastes 615 

291. The Israelites are Bitten by Serpents in the Wilder- 

ness, AND Moses Lifts Up the Serpent of Brass . 616 

292. The Serpent-Charmer 619 

293. The Viper 621 

294. Teaching Cobras to Dance 623 

295. Horned Viper 625 

296. The Viper, or Epheh 627 

297. The Toxicoa 628 

298. The Frog 630 

299. Fishes .633 

300. A KiVER Scene 635 



18 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

NO. PAGB 

301. Peter Catches the Fish 636 

302. MuR^NA, Long-Headed Barbel, and Sheat Fish . . . 638 

303. Sucking Fish, Tunny, and Coryphene 640 

304 Fishing Scene on the Sea of G-alilee 642 

305. Mode of Dragging the Seine Net 645 

306. Nile Perch, Surjiullet, and Stargazer 647 

307. The Pearl Oyster 653 

308. Insects 655 

309. A Swarm of Locusts 659 

310. The Locust 663 

311. The Bee 665 

312. The Hornet and its Nest 669 

313. Ants on the March 671 

314. Ant of Palestine 675 

315. The Crimson Worm 677 

316. MoRDECAi is Led through the City upon the Kino's 

Horse 679 

317. Butterflies of Palestine 682 

318. Noxious Flies of Palestine 685 

319. The Scorpion 690 

320. Coral 094 




STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE LION. 



Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures — The Lion employed as an emblem 
in the Bible — Similarity of the African and Asiatic species — The chief charac- 
teristics of the Lion — its strength, activity, and mode of seizing its prey — The 
Lion hunt. 

Of all the imdoraesticated animals of Palestine, none is men- 
tioned so frequently as the LiON. This may appear the more 
remarkable, because for many years the Lion has been extinct 
in Palestine. The leopard, the wolf, the jackal, and the hyaena, 
still retain their place in the land, although their numbers are 
comparatively few ; but the Lion has vanished completely out of 
the land. The reason for this disappearance is twofold, first, 
the thicker population; and second, the introduction of 
firearms. 

No animal is less tolerant of human society than the Lion. In 
the first place, it dreads the very face of man, and as a rule, 



20 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

whenever it sees a man will slink away and hide itself. There 

are, of course, exceptional cases to this rule. Sometimes a LioD 
becomes so old and stiff, his teeth are so worn, and his endurance 
so slight, that he is unable to chase his usual prey, and is 
obliged to seek for other means of subsistence. In an unpopu- 
lated district, he would simply be starved to death, but when 
his lot is cast in the neighbourhood of human beings, he is per- 
force obliged to become a " man-eater." Even in that case, a 
Lion will seldom attack a man, unless he should be able to do so 
unseen, but will hang about the villages, pouncing on the women 
as they come to the wells for water, or upon the little children 
as they stray from their parents, and continually shifting his 
quarters lest he should be assailed during his sleep. The Lion 
requires a very large tract of country for his maintenance, and 
the consequence is, that in proportion as the land is populated 
does the number of Lions decrease. 

Firearms are the special dread of the Lion. Tn the first place, 
the Lion, like all wild beasts, cannot endure fire, and the flash of 
the gun terrifies him greatly. Then, there is the report, surpass- 
ing even his roar in resonance ; and lastly, there is the unseen 
ballet, which seldom kills him at once, but mostly drives him to 
furious anger by the pain of his wound, yet which he does not 
dread nearly so much as the harmless flash and report. There is 
another cause of the Lion's banishment from the Holy Land. 
It is well known that to attract any wild beast or "bird to some 
definite spot, all that is required is to provide them with a suit- 
able and undisturbed home, and a certainty of food. Conse- 
quently, the surest method of driving them away is to deprive 
them of both these essentials. Then the Lion used to live in 
forests, which formerly stretched over large tracts of ground, but 
which have long since been cut down, thus depriving the Lion of 
its home, while the thick population and the general use of fire- 
arms have deprived him of his food. In fact, the Lion has been 
driven out of Palestine, just as the woK has been extirpated 
from England. 

But, in the olden times. Lions must have been very plentiful. 
There is scarcely a book in the Bible, whether of the Old or 
New Testaments, whether historical or prophetical, that does not 
contain some mention of this terrible animal; sometimes de- 
scribing the actions of individual Lions, but mostly using the 



THE LION. 



21 




22 



STOMY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



word as an emblem of strength and force, whether used lor a 
good purpose or abused for a bad one. 

There are several varieties of Lion, which may be reduced to 
two, namely, the African and the Asiatic Lion. It is almost 
certain, however, that these animals really are one and the same 
species, and that the trifling differences which exist between au 
African and an Asiatic Lion, are not sufficient to justify a 
naturalist in considering them to be distinct species. The habits 
of both are identical, modified, as is sure to be the case, by the 
difference of locality ; but then, such variations in habit are con- 




A LION KILLS THE PROPHET FROM JUD.VH. 



tinually seen in animals confessedly of the same species, which 
happen to be placed in different conditions of climate and 
locality. 

That it was once exceedingly plentiful in Palestine is evident, 
from a very cursory knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. It is 
every where mentioned as a w^ell-known animal, equally famihar 
and dreaded. When the disobedient prophet was killed by the 
Lion near Bethel, the fact seemed not to have caused any sur- 
prise in the neighbourhood. When the people came out to 
rescue the body of the prophet, thev wondered much because the 



TBE LION. 



23 



Lion was standing by the fallen man, but had not torn him, and 
had left the ass unhurt. But that a Lion should have killed a 
man seems to have been an event which was not sufficiently 
rare to be surprising. 

We will now proceed to those characteristics of the Lion 
which bear especial reference to the Scriptures. 

In the first place, size for size, the Lion is one of the strongest 
of beasts. 




LION AND TIGKR. 



Moreover, the strength of the Lion is equally distributed over the 
body and limbs, giving to the animal an easy grace of movement 
which is rare except with such a structure. A full-grown Lion 
cannot only knock down and kill, but can carry away in its 
mouth, an ordinary ox ; and one of these terrible animals has been 
known to pick up a heifer in its mouth, and to leap over a wide 
ditch still carrying its burden. Another Lion carried a two-yeai 
old heifer, and was chased for five hours by mounted farmers, so 
that it must have traversed a very considerable distance. Yet, in 



24 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the whole of this long journey, the legs of the heifer liad only 
two or three times touched the ground. 

It kills man, and comparatively small animals, such as deei 
and antelopes, with a blow of its terrible paw ; and often needs 
to sjive no second blow to cause the death of its victim. The 
sliarp talons are not needed to cause death, for the weight of the 
blow is sufficient for that purpose. 

Wlien the hunter pursues it with dogs, after the usual fashion, 
there is often a gTeat slaughter among them, especially among 
those that are inexperienced in the chase of the Lion. Urged by 
their instinctive antipathy, the dogs rush forward to the spot 
where the Lion awaits them, and old hounds bay at him from a 
safe distance, while the young and inexperienced among them 
are apt to convert the sham attack into a real one. Their valour 
meets with a poor reward, for a few blows from the Lion's ter- 
rible paws send his assailants flying in all directions, their bodies 
streaming with blood, and in most cases a fatal damage inflicted, 
while more than one unfortunate dog lies fairly crushed by the 
weight of a paw laid with apparent carelessness upon its body. 
There is before me a Lion's skin, a spoil of one of these animals 
shot by the celebrated sportsman, Gordon Gumming. Although 
the skin lies flat upon the floor, and the paws are nothing but 
the skin and talons, the weight of each'paw is very consider- 
able, and always surprises those who hear it fall on the floor. 

There are several Hebrew words which are used. for the Lion, 
but that which signifies the animal in its adult state is derived 
from an Arabic word signifying strength ; and therefore the 
Lion is called the Strong-one, just as the Bat is called the Night- 
flier. No epithet could be better deserved, for the Lion seems to 
be a very incarnation of strength, and, even when dead, gives as 
vivid an idea of concentrated power as when it w^as living. 
And, when the skin is stripped from the body, the tremendous 
muscular development never fails to create a sensation of awe. 
The muscles of the limbs, themselves so hard as to blunt the 
keen-edged knives employed by a dissecter, are enveloped in 
their glittering sheaths, playing upon each other like well-oiled 
machinery, and terminating in tendons seemingly strong as steel, 
and nearly as impervious to the knife. Not until the skin is re- 
moved can any one form a conception of the enormously power- 
ful muscles of the neck, which enable the Lion to lift the 




THE LION REPLIES TO THE THUNDER. 



26 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

weighty prey which it kills, and to convey it to a place of 
security. 

Although usually unwilling to attack an armed man, it is one 
of the most courageous animals in existence when it is driven to 
fight, and if its anger i^ excited, it cares little for the number of 
its foes, or the weapons with which they are armed. Even the 
dreaded firearms lose their terrors to an angry Lion, while a 
Lioness, who fears for the safety of her young, is simply the 
most terrible animal in existence. We know how even a hen 
will fight for her chickens, and how she has been known to beat 
off the fox and the hawk by the reckless fury of her attack. 
It may be easily imagined, therefore, that a Lioness actuated by 
equal courage, and possessed of the terrible weapons given to 
her by her Creator, would be an animal almost too formidable 
for the conception of those who have not actually witnessed the 
scene of a Lioness defending her little ones. 

The roar of the Lion is another of the characteristics for which 
it is celebrated. There is no beast that can produce a sound that 
could for a moment be mistaken for the roar of the Lion. The 
Lion has a habit of stooping his head towards the ground when 
he roars, so that the terrible sound rolls along like thunder, and 
reverberates in many an echo in the far distance. Owing to this 
curious habit, the roar can be heard at a very great distance, but its 
locality is rendered uncertain, and it is often dififi.cult to be quite 
sure whether the Lion is to the right or the left of the hearer. 

There are few sounds which strike more awe than the Lion's 
roar. Even at the Zoological Gardens, where the hearer knows 
that he is in perfect safety, and where the Lion is enclosed in a 
small cage faced with strong iron bars, the sound of the terrible 
roar always has a curious effect upon the nerves. It is not 
exactly fear, because the hearer knows that he is safe ; but it is 
somewhat akin to the feeling of mixed awe and admiration with 
which one listens to the crashing thunder after the lightning has 
sped its course. If such be the case when the Lion is safely 
housed in a cage, and is moreover so tame that even if he did 
escape, he would be led back by the keeper without doing any 
harm, the effect of the roar must indeed be terrific when the 
Lion is at liberty, when he is in his own country, and when the 
shades of evening prevent him from being seen even at a short 
distance. 




LIONESS AND YOUNG. 



28 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

In the dark, there is no animal so invisible as a Lion. Almost 
every hunter has told a similar story — of the Lion's approach at 
night, of the terror displayed by dogs and cattle as he drew 
near, and of the utter inability to see him, though he was so 
close that they could hear his breathing. Sometimes, when he 
has crept near an encampment, or close to a cattle inclosure, he 
does not proceed any farther lest he should venture within the 
radius illumined by the rays of the fire. So he crouches closely 
to the ground, and, in the semi-darkness, looks so like a large 
stone, or a little hillock, that any one might pass close to it 
without, perceiving its real nature. This gives the opportunity 
for which the Lion has been watching, and in a moment he 
strikes down the careless straggler, and carries off his prey to 
the den. Sometimes, when very much excited, he accompanies 
the charge with a roar, but, as a general fact, he secures his prey 
in silence. 

The roar of the Lion is very peculiar. It is not a mere out- 
burst of sound, but a curiously graduated performance. No de- 
scription of the Lion's roar is so vivid, so true, and so graphic as 
that of Gordon Gumming : " One of the most striking things 
connected with the Lion is his voice, which is extremely grand 
and peculiarly striking. It consists at times of a low, deep 
moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in faintly audible 
sighs. At other times he startles the forest with loud, deep- 
toned, solemn roars, repeated five or six times in quick succes- 
sion, each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his 
voice dies away in five or six low, muffled sounds, very much 
resembling distant thunder. As a general rule. Lions roar during 
the night, their sighing moans commencing as the shades of 
evening envelop the forest, and continuing at intervals through- 
out the night. In distant and secluded regions, however, I have 
constantly heard them roaring loudly as late as nine or ten 
o'clock on a bright sunny morning. In hazy and rainy weather 
they are to be heard at every hour in the day, but their roar is 
subdued." 

Lastly, we come to the dwelling-place of the Lion. This 
animal always fixes its residence in the depths of some forest, 
through which it threads its stealthy way with admirable cer- 
tainty. No fox knows every hedgerow, ditch, drain, and covert 
better than the Lion knows the whole country around his den. 



THE LION. 29 

Each Lion seems to have his peculiar district, in which only 
himself and his family will be found. These animals seem to 
parcel out the neighbourhood among themselves by a tacit law 
like that which the dogs of eastern countries have imposed upon 
themselves, and which forbids them to go out of the district in 
which they were born. During the night he traverses his 
dominions ; and, as a rule, he retires to his den as soon as the 
sun is fairly above the horizon. Sometimes he will be in wait 
for prey in the broadest daylight, but his ordinary habits are 
nocturnal, and in the daytime he is usually asleep in his secret 
dwelling-place. 

We will now glance at a few of the passages in which the 
Lion is mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, selecting those which 
treat of its various characteristics. 

The terrible strength of the Lion is the subject of repeated 
reference. In the magnificent series of prophecies uttered by 
Jacob on his deathbed, the power of the princely tribe of Judah 
is predicted under the metaphor of a Lion — the beginning of its 
power as a Lion's whelp, the fulness of its strength as an adult 
Lion, and its matured establishment in power as the old Lion 
that couches himself and none dares to disturb him. Then 
Solomon, in the Proverbs, speaks of the Lion as the " strongest 
among beasts, and that turneth not away for any." 

Solomon also alludes to its courage in the same book, Pro v. 
xxviii. 1, in the well-known passage, " The wicked fleeth when 
no man pursueth : but the righteous are bold as a lion." And, 
in 2 Sam. xxiii, 20, the courage of Benaiah, one of the mighty 
three of David's army, is specially honoured, because he fought 
and killed a Lion single-handed, and because he conquered 
" two lion-like men of Moab." David, their leader, had also dis- 
tinguished himself, when a mere keeper of cattle, by pursuing 
and killing a Lion that had come to plunder his herd. In the 
same book of Samuel which has just been quoted (xvii. 10), 
the valiant men are metaphorically described as having the 
hearts of Lions. 

The ferocity of this terrible beast of prey is repeatedly men- 
tioned, and the Psalms are full of such allusions, the fury and 
anger of enemies being compared to the attacks of the Lion. 

Many passages refer to the Lion's roar, and it is remarkable 
that the Hebrew language contains several words by which the 



30 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

different kind of roar is described. One word, for example, 
represents tlie low, deep, thunder-like roar of the Lion seeking 
its prey, and which has already been mentioned. This is the 
word which is used in Amos iii. 4, "Will a lion roar in the 
forest when he hath no prey?" and in this passage the word 
which is translated as Lion signifies the animal when full grown 
and in the prime of life. Another word is used to signify the 
sudden exulting cry of the Lion as it leaps upon its victim. A 
third is used for the angry growl with which a Lion resents any 
endeavour to deprive it of its prey, a sound- with which we are 
all familiar, on a miniature scale, when we hear a cat growling 
over a mouse which she has just caught. The fourth term signifies 
the pecuhar roar uttered by the young lion after it has ceased 
to be a cub and before it has attained maturity. This last term 
is employed in Jer. IL 38, " They shaU. roar together like lions ; 
they shall yell as lions' whelps," in which passage two distinct 
words are used, one signifying the roar of the Lion when search- 
ing after prey, and the other the cry of the young Lions. 

The prophet Anuos, who in his capacity of herdsman was 
familiar with the wild beasts, from which he had to guard his 
cattle, makes frequent mention of the Lion, and does so with a force 
and vigour that betoken practical experience. How powerful is 
this imagery, " The lion hath roared; who wiU not fear ? The Lord 
God hath spoken ; who can but prophesy ? " Here we have the 
picture of the man himself, the herdsman and prophet, who had 
trembled many a night, as the Lions drew nearer and nearer ; 
and who heard the voice of the Lord, and his Ups poured out 
prophecy. Nothing can be more complete than the parallel 
which he has drawn. It breathes the very spirit of piety, and 
may bear comparison even with the prophecies of Isaiah for its 
simple grandeur. 

It is remarkable how the sacred writers have entered into the 
spirit of the world around them, and how closely they observed 
the minutest details even in the lives of the brute beasts. There 
is a powerful passage in the book of Job, iv. 11, "The old 
lion perisheth for lack of prey," in which the writer betrays his 
thorough knowledge of the habits of the animal, and is aware 
that the usual mode of a Lion's death is through hunger, in con- 
sequence of his increasing inability to catch prey. 

The nocturnal habits of the lAon and its custom of lying in 



THE IJON. 



31 



wait for prey are often mentioned in the Scriptures. The former 
habit is spoken of in that familiar and beautiful passage in 
the Psalms (civ. 20), " Thou makest darkness, and it is night ; 
wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth. The young 
Lions roar after their prey ; and seek their meat from God. The 
sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down 
in their dens." 




LION CARRYING HOME SUPPLIES. 



An animal so destructive among the flocks and herds could 
not be allowed to carry out its depredations unchecked, and as 
we have already seen, the warfare waged against it has been so 
successful, that the Lions have long ago been fairly extirpated in 
Palestine. The usual method of capturing or killing the Lion 
was by pitfalls or nets, to both of which there are many refer- 
ences in the Scriptures. 

The mode of hunting the Lion with nets was identical with 
that which is practised in India at the present time. The pre- 
cise locality of the Lion's dwelling-place having been discovered, 
a circular wall of net is arranged round it, or if only a few nets 
can be obtained, they are set in a curved form, the concave side 
being towards the Lion. They then send dogs into the thicket, 
hurl stones and sticks at the den, shoot arrow-s into it, fling 



32 



STOMY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 




THE LION. 33 

buruing torches at it, and so irritate and alarm the animal that it 
rushes against the net, which is so made that it falls down and 
envelopes the animal in its folds. If the nets he few, the drivers 
go to the opposite side of the den, and induce the Lion to escape 
in the direction where he sees no foes, but vhere he is sure to run 
against the treacherous net. Other large and dangerous animals 
were also captured by the same means. 

Another and more common, because an easier and a cheaper 
method was, by digging a deep pit, covering the mouth with a 
slight covering of sticks and earth, and driving the animal upon 
the treacherous covering. It is an easier method than the net, 
because after the pit is once dug, the only trouble lies in throw- 
ing the covering over its mouth. But, it is not so well adapted 
for taking beasts alive, as they are likely to be damaged, either 
by the fall into the pit, or by the means used in getting them 
out again. Animals, therefore, that are caught in pits are 
generally, though not always, killed before they are taken out. 
The net, however, envelops the animal so perfectly, and renders 
it so helpless, that it can be easily bound and taken away. The 
hunting net is very expensive, and requires a large staff of men to 
work it, so that none but a rich man could use it in hunting. 

The passages in which allusion is made to the use of the pitfall 
m hunting are too numerous to be quoted, and it will be suf- 
ficient to mention one or two passages, such as those wherein the 
Psalmist laments that his enemies have hidden for him their net 
in a pit, and that the proud have digged pits for him. 

Lions that were taken in nets seem to have been kept alive 
in dens, either as mere curiosities, or as instruments of royal 
vengeance. Such seems to have been the object of the Lion.s 
which were kept by Darius, into whose den Daniel was thrown, 
by royal command, and which afterwards killed his accusers 
when thrown into the same den. It is plain that the Lions kept 
by Darius must have been exceedingly numerous, because they 
killed at once the accusers of Daniel, who were many in number, 
together with their wives and children, who, in accordance with 
the cruel custom of that age and country, were partakers of 
the same punishment with the real culprits. The whole of the 
first part of Ezek. xix. alludes to the custom of taking Lions alive 
and keeping t^^em in durance afterwards. 

2* 



34 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Sometimes the Lion was hunted as a sport, but this amuse- 
ment seems to have been restricted to the great men, on account 
of its expensive nature. Such hunting scenes are graphically 
depicted in the famous Nineveh sculptures, which represent the 
hunters pursuing their mighty game in chariots, and destroying 
them with arrows. Rude, and even conventional as are these 
sculptures, they have a spirit, a force, and a truthfulness, that 
prove them to have been designed by artists to whom the scene 
was a familiar one. 




THE LION ATTACKS THE HERD, 



Upon the African Continent the Lion reigns supreme, monarch 
of the feline race. 

Whatever may be said of the distinction between the Asiatic 
and African Lion, there seems to be scarcely sufficient grounds for 
considering the very slight differences a sufficient warrant for con- 
stituting separate species. From all accounts, it seems that the 



36 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

habits of all Lions are very similar, and that a Lion acts like a 
Lion whether found in Africa or Asia. 

An old Boer, as the Dutch settlers of Southern Africa are called, 
gave me a most interesting account of an adventure with a Lion. 

The man was a well-known hunter, and lived principally by the 
sale of ivory and skins. He was accustomed each year to make a 
trip into the game country, and traded with the Kaffirs, or native 
blacks, under very favorable auspices. His stock in trade consisted 
of guns and ammunition, several spans of fine oxen, some horses, 
and about a dozen dogs. 

A Lion which appeared to have been roaming about the country 
happened to pass near this hunter's camp, and scenting the horses 
and oxen, evidently thought that the location would suit him for a 
short period. A dense wood situated about a mile from the camp 
afforded shelter, and this spot the Lion selected as a favorable posi- 
tion for his headquarters. 

The hunter had not to wait for more than a day, before the sus- 
picions which had been aroused by some broad footmarks, which he 
saw imprinted in the soil, were confirmed into a certainty that a 
large Lion was concealed near his residence. 

It now became a question of policy whether the Boer should 
attack the Lion, or wait for the Lion to attack him. He thought 
it possible that the savage beast, having been warned off by the 
dogs, whose barking had been continued and furious during the 
night on which the Lion was supposed to have passed, might think 
discretion the better part of valor, and consequently would move 
farther on, in search of a less carefully guarded locality upon 
which to quarter himself He determined, therefore, to wait, but 
to use every precaution against a night-surprise. 

The Lion, however, was more than a match for the man ; for 
during the second night a strong ox from his best span was quietly 
^arried off, and, although there was some commotion among the 
dogs and cattle, it was then thought that the alarm had scared the 
Lion away. 

The morning light, however, showed that the beast had leaped 
the fence which, surrounded the camp, and, having killed the ox, 
had evidently endeavored to scramble over it again with the ox in 
his possession. The weight of the Lion and the ox had caused the 
stakes to give way, and the Lion had easily carried off his prey 
through the aperture. 



THE LION. 37 

The track of the Lion was immediately followed by the Boer, 
who took with him a negro and half a dozen of his best dogs. The 
tracks were easily seen, and the hunter had no difficulty in decid- 
ing that the Lion was in the wood previously mentioned. But this 
in itself was no great advance, for the place was overgrown with a 
dense thicket of thorn-bushes, creepers, and long grass, forming a 
jungle so thick and impenetrable that for a man to enter seemed 
almost impossible. 

It was therefore agreed that the Boer should station himself on 
one side, while the negro went to the other side of the jungle, the 
dogs meanwhile being sent into the thicket. 

This arrangement, it was hoped, would enable either the hunter 
or the negro to obtain a shot ; for they concluded that the dogs, 
which were very courageous animals, would drive the Lion out of 
the bushes. 

The excited barking of the dogs soon indicated that they had 
discovered the Lion, but they appeared to be unable to drive him 
from his stronghold ; for, although they would scamper away every 
iiow and then, as though the enraged monster was chasing them, 
still they returned to bark at the same spot. 

Both of the hunters fired several shots, with the hope that a 
stray bullet might find its way through the underwood to the heart 
of the savage beast, but a great quantity of ammunition was ex- 
pended and no result achieved. 

At length, as the dogs had almost ceased to bark, it was con- 
sidered advisable to call them off. But all the whistling and 
shouting failed to recall more than two out of the six, and one of 
these was fearfully wounded. The others, it was afterwards found, 
had been killed by the Lion : a blow from his paw had sufficed to 
break the back or smash the skull of all which had come within 
his reach. 

Thus the first attempt on the Lion was a total failure, and the 
hunter returned home lamenting the loss of his dogs, and during 
the night watched beside his enclosure ; but the Lion did not pay 
him a second visit. 

Early on the following evening, accompanied by the negro, he 
started afresh for the wood ; and, having marked the spot from 
which the Lion had on the former occasion quitted the dense 
thorny jungle, the two hunters ascended a tree and watched during 
the whole night in the hope of obtaining a shot at the hated 



38 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

marauder. But while they were paying the residence of the Lion 
a visit he favored the camp with a call, and this time, by way of 
variety, carried away a very valuable horse, which he conveyed to 
the wood, being wise enough to walk out and to return by a dif- 
ferent path from that he had previously used, consequently avoid- 
ing the ambush prepared for him. 

When the hunter returned to his camp, he was furious at this 
new loss, and determined upon a plan which, though dangerous, 
still appeared the most likely to insure the destruction of the 
ravenous monster. 

This plan was to enter the wood alone, without attendant or 
dogs, and with noiseless, stealthy movements creep near enough 
to the Lion to obtain a shot. 

Now, when we consider the difficulty of moving through thick 
bushes without making a noise, and remember the watchful habits 
of every member of the cat tribe, we may be certain that to sur- 
prise the Lion was a matter of extreme difficulty, and that the 
probability was that the hunter would meet with disaster. 

At about ten o'clock on the morning after the horse-slaughter, 
the hunter started for the wood armed with a double-barrelled 
smooth-bore gun, and prepared to put forth his utmost skill in 
stalking his dangerous enemy. 

Kow, it is the nature of the Lion, when gorged, to sleep during 
the day ; and if the animal has carried off any prey, it usually 
conceals itself near the remnants of its feast, to watch them until 
ready for another meal. 

The hunter was aware of this, and laid his plans very judiciously. 
He approached the wood slowly and silently, found the track of 
the Lion, and began tracing it to find the spot where the remains 
of the horse could be seen. 

He moved forward very slowly and with great caution, being 
soon surrounded by the thick bushes, the brightness of the plain 
also being succeeded by the deep gloom of the wood. Being an 
experienced hand at bush-craft, he was able to walk or crawl with- 
out causing either a dried stick to crack or a leaf to rustle, and he 
was aware that his progress was without noise ; for the small birds, 
usually so watchfal and alert, flew away only when he approached 
close to them, thus showing that their eyes, and not their ears, had 
made them conscious of the presence of man. 

Birds and monkeys are the great obstacles in the bush to the 



THE LION. 



39 




40 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

success of a surprise, for the birds fly from tree to tree and whistle 
or twitter, whilst the monkeys chatter and grimace, expressing by 
all sorts of actions that a strange creature is approaching. When, 
therefore, the bushranger finds that birds and monkeys are uncon- 
scious of his presence until they see him, he may be satisfied that 
he has traversed the bush with tolerable silence, and has van- 
quished such dangerous betrayers of his presence as dried stick? 
and dead leaves. 

The hunter had not proceeded thus more than fifty yards into 
the jungle, before he found indications that he was close upon the 
lair of the Lion : a strong leonine scent was noticeable, and part of 
the carcase of his horse was visible between the bushes. Instead, 
therefore, of advancing farther, as an incautious or inexperienced 
bushranger would have done, he crouched down behind a bush and 
remained motionless. 

All animals are aware of the advantages of a surprise, and the 
cat tribe especially practise the ambuscading system. The hunter, 
therefore, determined, if possible, to turn the tables on the Lion, 
and to surprise, rather than to be surj)rised. 

He concluded that the Lion, even when gorged with horseflesh, 
would not be so neglectful of his safety as to sleep with more than 
one eye closed, and that, although he had crept with great care 
through the bush, he had probably, from some slight sound, caused 
the Lion to be on the alert ; if, therefore, he should approach the 
carcase of the horse, he might be pounced upon at once. 

After remaining silent and watchful for several minutes, the 
hunter at length saw that an indistinctly-outlined object was mov- 
ing behind some large broad-leafed plants at about twenty paces 
from him. 

This object was the Lion. It was crouched behind some shrubs, 
attentively watching the bushes where the hunter was concealed. 
Its head only was clearly visible, the body being hidden by the 
foliage. 

It was evident that the Lion was suspicious of something, but 
was not certain that anything had approached. 

The hunter, knowing that this was a critical period for him, 
remained perfectly quiet. He did not like to risk a shot at the 
forehead of the Lion, for it would require a very sure aim to 
insure a death-wound, and the number of twigs and branches 
would be almost certain to deflect the bullet. 



THE LION. 41 

The Lion, after a careful inspection, appeared to be satisfied, and 
laid down behind the shrubs. The hunter then cocked both bar- 
rels of his heavy gun and turned the muzzle slowly around, so that 
he covered the spot on which the Lion lay, and shifted his position 
so as to be well placed for a shot. 

The slight noise he made in moving, attracted the attention of 
the Lion, w^ho immediately rose to his feet. A broadside shot, 
which was the most sure, could not be obtained, so the hunter fired 
at the head of the animal, aiming for a spot between the eyes. 
The ball struck high, as is usually the case when the distance is 
short, and the charge of powder heavy, but the Lion fell over on 
its back, rising, however, almost immediately and uttering a terrific 
roar. 

In regaining its feet it turned its side to the hunter, giving him 
the opportunity he had so anxiously waited for. Aiming at a 
spot behind the shoulder, he fired again, and had the satisfaction 
of seeing the savage beast, maddened by the pain of a mortal 
wound, tearing up the ground in its fury within a very few paces 
of his hiding-place. 

By degrees its fierce roars subsided into angry growls, and the 
growls into heavy moans, until the terrible voice was hushed and 
silence reigned throughout the wood. 

The hunter immediately started oft' home, and brought his 
negroes and dogs to the spot, where they found stretched dead 
upon the ground a Lion of the largest size. 

Before sunset that evening its skin was pegged down at the 
hunter's camp, and all were filled with delight, knowing that they 
would be no more disturbed by the fierce marauder. 



42 STORY OF t:^e bible animals. 



THE LEOPARD. 

riie Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures — its attributes exactly 
described — Probability that several animals were classed under the name — 
How the Leopard takes its prey — Craft of the Leopard — its ravages among the 
flocks— The empire of man over the beast — The Leopard at Bay — Locahties 
wherein the Leopard lives — The skin of the Leopard — Various passages of 
Scripture explained. 

Of the Leopakd but little is said in the Holy Scriptures. 

In the New Testament this animal is only mentioned once, 
and then in a metaphorical rather than a literal sense. In the 
Old Testament it is casually mentioned seven times, and only in 
two places is the word Leopard used in the strictly literal sense. 
Yet, in those brief passages of Holy Writ, the various attributes 
of the animal are delineated vsdth such fidelity, that no one 
could doubt that the Leopard was familiarly known in Palestine. 
Its colour, its swiftness, its craft, its ferocity, and the nature of 
its dwellrng-place, are all touched upon in a few short sentences 
scattered throughout the Old Testament, and even its peculiar 
habits are alluded to in a manner that proves it to have been well 
>nown at the time when the words were written. 

It is my purpose in the foUowrag pages to give a brief account 
of the Leopard of the Scriptures, laying most stress on the 
qualities to which allusion is made, and then to explain the 
passages ia which the name of the animal occurs. 

In the first place, it is probable that under the word Leopard 
are comprehended three animals, two of which, at least, were 
thought to be one species until the time of Cuvier. These three 
animals are the Leopakd proper {Leopardus varius), the Ounce 
{Leopardus undo), and the Chetah, or Hunting Leopard (Gue- 
parda juhata). All these three species belong to the same family 
of animals ; all are spotted and similar in colour, all are nearly 
alike in shape, and aU are inhabitants of Asia, while two of 
them, the Leopard and the Chetah, are also found in Africa. 



THE LEOPARD. 



43 



It is scarcely necessary to mention that the Leopard is a beast 
of prey belonging to the cat tribe, that its colour is tawny, 
variegated with rich black spots, and that it is a fierce and 
voracious animal, almost equally dreaded by man and beast. It 
inhabits many parts of Africa and Asia, and in those portions of 
the country which are untenanted by mankind, it derives all its 
sustenance from the herb-eating animals of the same tracts. 




THB LEOPARD. 



To deer and antelopes it is a terrible enemy, and in spite of 
their active limbs, seldom fails in obtaining its prey. Swift as 
is the Leopard, for a short distance, and wonderful as its spring, 
it has not the enduiing speed of the deer or antelope, animals 
which are specially formed for running, and which, if a limb is 



44 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

shattered, can run nearly as fast and quite as far on three legs 
as they can when all four limbs are uninjured. Instinctively 
knowing its inferiority in the race, the Leopard supplie?, by 
cunning the want of enduring speed. 

It conceals itself in some spot whence it can see far around 
without being seen, and thence surveys the country. A tree is 
the usual spot selected for this purpose, and the Leopard, after 
climbing the trunk by means of its curved talons, settles itself 
in the fork of the branches, so that its body is hidden by the 
boughs, and only its head is shown between them. With such 
scrupulous care does it conceal itself, that none but a practised 
hunter can discover it, while any one who is unaccustomed to 
the woods cannot see the animal even when the tree is pointed 
out to him. 

As soon as the Leopard sees the deer feeding at a distance, he 
slips down the tree and stealthily glides off in their direction. 
He has many difficulties to overcome, because the deer are 
among the most watchful of animals, and if the Leopard were 
to approach to the windward, they would scent him while he 
was yet a mile away from them. If he were to show himself 
but for one moment in the open ground he would be seen, and 
if he were but to shake a branch or snap a dry twig he would 
be heard. So, he is obliged to approach them against the wind, 
to keep himself under cover, and yet to glide so carefully along 
that the heavy foliage of the underwood shall not be shaken, and 
the dry sticks and leaves which strew the ground shall not be 
broken. He has also to escape the observation of certain birds 
and beasts which inhabit the woods, and which would certainly 
set up their alarm-cry as soon as they saw him, and so give 
warning to the wary deer, which can perfectly understand a cry 
of alarm, from whatever animal it may happen to proceed. 

Still, he proceeds steadily on his course, gliding from one 
covert to another, and often expending several hours before he 
can proceed for a mile. By degrees he contrives to come toler- 
ably close to them, and generally manages to conceal himself in 
some spot towards which the deer are gradually feeding their 
way. As soon as they are near enough, he collects himself for 
a spring, just as a cat does when she leaps on a bird, and dashes 
towards the deer in a series of mighty bounds. For a moment 
or two they are startled and paralysed with fear at the sudden 




LEOPARD ATTACKING A HERD OF DEER. 



46 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

appearance of their enemy, and thus give Tn'm time to get among 
them. Singling out some particular animal, he leaps upon it, 
strikes it down with one blow of his paw, and then, couching 
on the fallen animal, he tears open its throat, and laps the 
flowing blood. 

In this manner does it obtain its prey when it lives m the 
desert, but when it happens to be in the neighbourhood of 
human habitations, it acts in a different manner. Whenever man 
settles himself in any place, his presence is a signal for the 
beasts of the desert and forest to fly. The more timid, such as 
the deer and antelope, are afraid of him, and betake themselves 
as far away as possible. The more savage inhabitants of the 
land, such as the lion, leopard, and other animals, wage an un- 
equal war against him for a time, but are continually driven 
farther and farther away, until at last they are completely ex- 
pelled from the country. The predaceous beasts are, however, loth 
to retire, and do so by very slow degrees. They can no longer 
support themselves on the deer and antelopes, but find a simple 
substitute for them in the flocks and herds which man intro- 
duces, and in the seizing of which there is as much craft re- 
quired as in the catching of the fleeter and wilder animals. 
Sheep and goats cannot run away like the antelopes, but they 
are penned so carefully within inclosures, and guarded so 
watchfully by herdsmen and dogs, that the Leopard is obliged to 
exert no small amount of cunning before it can obtain a meaL 

Sometimes it creeps quietly to the fold, and escapes the notice 
of the dogs, seizes upon a sheep, and makes off with it before 
the alarm is given. Sometimes it hides by the wayside, and as 
the flock pass by it dashes into the midst of them, snatches up a 
sheep, and disappears among the underwood on the opposite 
side of the road. Sometimes it is crafty enough to deprive the 
fold of its watchful guardian. Dogs which are used to Leopard- 
hunting never attack the animal, though they are rendered 
furious by the sound of its voice. They dash at it as if they 
meant to devour it, but take very good care to keep out of reach 
of its terrible paws. By continually keeping the animal at bay, 
they give time for their master to come up, and generally con- 
trive to drive it into a tree, where it can be shot. 

But instances have been known where the Leopard has taken 
advantage of the dogs, and carried them off in a very cunning 



48 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

manner. It hides itself tolerably near the fold, and then begins 
to growl in a low voice. The dogs think that they hear a 
Leopard at a distance, and dash towards the sound with 
furious barks and yells. In so doing, they are sure to pass by 
the hiding-place of the Leopard, which springs upon them 
unawares, knocks one of them over, and bounds away to its den 
in the woods. It does not content itself with taking sheep or 
goats from the fold, but is also a terrible despoiler of the hen- 
roosts, destroying great numbers in a single night when once it 
contrives to find its way into the house. 

As an instance of the cunning which seems innate in the 
Leopard, I may mention that whenever it takes up its abode 
near a village, it does not meddle with the flocks and herds of 
its neighbours, but prefers to go to some other village at a dis- 
tance for food, thus remaining unsuspected almost at the very 
doors of the houses. 

In general, it does not willingly attack mankind, and at all 
events seems rather to fear the presence of a full-grown man. 
But, when wounded or irritated, all sense of fear is lost in an 
overpowering rush of fury, and it then becomes as terrible a foe 
as the lion himself. It is not so large nor so strong, but it is 
more agile and quicker in its movements ; and when it is seized 
with one of these paroxysms of anger, the eye can scarcely 
follow it as it darts here and there, striking with lightning 
rapidity, and dashing at any foe within reach. Its whole shape 
seems to be transformed, and absolutely to swell with anger ; its 
eyes flash with fiery lustre, its ears are thrown back on the 
head, and it continually utters alternate snarls and yells of rage. 
It is hardly possible to recognise the graceful, lithe glossy 
creature, whose walk is so noiseless, and whose every movement 
is so easy, in the furious passion-swollen animal that flies at 
every foe with blind fury, and pours out sounds so fierce and 
menacing that few men, however well armed, will care to face it. 

As is the case with most of the cat tribe, the Leopard is an 
' excellent climber, and can ascend trees and traverse their boughs 
without the least difficulty. It is so fond of trees, that it is 
seldom to be seen except in a weU-wooded district. Its 
favourite residence is a forest where there is plenty of under- 
wood, at least six or seven feet in height, among which trees are 
sparingly interspersed. When crouched in this cover it is prac- 



50 STOMY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALSi. 

tically invisible, even though its body may be within arm's 
length of a passenger. The spotted body harmonizes so per- 
fectly with the broken lights and deep shadows of the foliage 
that even a practised hunter will not enter a covert in search of 
a Leopard unless he is accompanied by dogs. The instinct which 
teaches the Leopard to choose such localities is truly wonderful, 
and may be compared with that of the tiger, which cares little 
for underwood, but haunts the grass jungles, where the long, 
narrow blades harmonize with the stripes which decorate 
its body. 

The skin of the Leopard has always been highly valued on 
account of its beauty, and in Africa, at the present day, a robe 
made of its spotted skin is as much an adjunct of royalty as is 
the ermine the emblem of judicial dignity in England. In more 
ancient times, a leopard skin was the ofi&cial costume of a priest, 
the skin being sometimes shaped into a garment, and sometimes 
thrown over the shoulders and the paws crossed over the breast. 

Such is a general histor}^ of the Leopard. We will now pro- 
ceed to the various passages in which it is mentioned, beginning 
with its outward aspect. 

In the first place, the Hebrew word Namer signifies " spotted," 
and is given to the animal in allusion to its colours. The reader 
will now see how forcible is the lament of Jeremiah, " Can the 
Ethiopian change his skin, or the Leopard his spots ? " Literally, 
"Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the spotted one his 
spots ? " 

The agility and swiftness of the Leopard are alluded to in 
the prediction by the prophet Habakkuk of the vengeance that 
would come upon Israel through the Chaldeans. In chap. i. 5, 
we read : " I will work a work in your days, which ye will not 
believe though it be told you. For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans, 
that bitter and hasty nation, which shaU march through the 
breadth of the land, to possess the dwelling-places that are not 
theirs. They are terrible and dreadful; their judgment and 
their dignity shall proceed of themselves. Their horses also are 
swifter than the Leopards, and are more fierce than the evening 
wolves." 

The craftiness of the Leopard, and the manner in w^hich it 
lies in wait for its prey, are alluded to in more than one passage 
of Holy Writ Hosea the prophet alludes to the Leopard, in a 



THE LEOPARD. 61 

few simple words which display an intimate acquaintance willt 
the habits of this formidable animal, and in this part of his 
prophecies lie displays that peculiar local tone which dis- 
tinguishes his writings. Speaking of the Israelites under the 
metaphor of a flock, or a herd, he proceeds to say : " According 
to their pasture so were they filled ; they were filled, and their 
heart was exalted ; therefore have they forgotten me. Therefore 
I will be unto them as a lion, as a Leopard by the way will I 
observe them." The reader will note the peculiar force of this 
sentence, whereby God signifies that He will destroy them 
openly, as a lion rushes on its prey, and that he will chastise 
them unexpectedly, as if it were a Leopard crouching by the 
wayside, and watching for the flock to pass, that it may spring 
on its prey unexpectedly. The same habit of the Leopard 
is also alluded to by Jeremiah, who employs precisely the same 
imagery as is used by Habakkuk. See Jer. v. 5, 6, " These have 
altogether broken the yoke, and burst the bonds. Wherefore 
a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the 
evenings shall spoil them, a leopard shall watch over their 
cities." It is evident from the employment of this image by 
two prophets, the one being nearly a hundred years before the 
other, that the crafty, insidious habits of the Leopard were well 
known in Palestine, and that the metaphor would tell with full 
force among those to whom it was addressed. 





THE CAT. 



The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and 01115^ once iii 
the Apocrypha — The Cat domesticated among the Egyptians, and trained in 
bird-catching — Neglected capabilities of the Cat — Anecdote of an English 
Cat that caught fish for her master — Presumed reason why the Scriptures are 
silent about the Cat — The Cat mentioned by Baruch. 

It is a very remarkable circumstance that the word Cat is not 
once mentioned in the whole of the canonical Scriptures, and 
only once in the Apocrypha. 

The Egyptians, as is well known, kept Cats domesticated in 
their houses, a fact which is mentioned by Herodotus, in his 
second book, and the 66th and 67th chapters. After describing 
the various animals which were kept and fed by tins nation, he 

52 



THE GAT. 53 

proceeds to narrate the habits of the Cat, and writes as follows : 
" When a fire takes place, a supernatural impulse seizes the 
cats. For the Egyptians, standing at a distance, take care of 
the cats and neglect to quench the fire ; but the cats make 
their escape, and leaping over tlie men, cast themselves into the 
fire, and when this occurs, great lamentations are made among 
the Egyptians. In whatever house a cat dies of a natural death, 
all the family shave their eyebrows. All cats that die are 
carried to certain sacred houses, where, after being embalmed, 
they are buried in the city of Bubastis." 

Now, as many of those cat-mummies have been discovered in 
good preservation, the species has been identified with the 
Egytian Cat of the present day, which is scientifically termed 
Felis maniculatus. N"ot only did the Egyptians keep Cats at 
their houses, but, as is shown by certain sculptures, took the 
animals with them when they went bird-catching, and employed 
them in securing their prey. Some persons have doubted this 
statement, saying, that in the first place, the Cat is not possessed 
of sufficient intelligence for the purpose ; and that in the second 
place, as the hunter is represented as catching wild fowl, the Cat 
would not be able to assist him, because it would not enter the 
water. Neither objection is valid, nor would have been made 
by a naturalist. 

There are no grounds whatever for assuming that the Cat has 
not sufficient intelligence to aid its master in hunting. On the 
contrary, there are many familiar instances where the animal 
has been trained, even in this country, to catch birds and other 
game, and bring its prey home. By nature the Cat is an accom- 
plished hunter, and, like other animals of the same disposition, 
can be taught to use its powers for mankind. We all know that 
the chetah. a member of the same tribe, is in constant use at 
the present day, and we learn from ancient sculptures that the 
lion was employed for the same purpose. Passing from land to 
water, mankind has succeeded in teaching the seal and the otter 
to plunge into the water, catch their finny prey, and deliver it to 
their owners. Among predaceous birds, we have trained the 
eagle, the falcon, and various hawks, to assist us in hunting the 
finned and feathered tribes, while we have succeeded in teaching 
the cormorant to catch fish for its master, and not for itself. 
Why, then, should the Cat be excepted from a rule so goieral ? 



54 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The fact ia, the Cat has been, although domesticated for so 
many centuries, a comparatively neglected animal ; and it is the 
fashion to heap upon it the contumacious epithets of sullen, 
treacherous, selfish, spiteful, and intractable, just as we take as 
our emblems of stupidity the ass and the goose, which are 
really among the most cunning of the lower animals. We have 
never tried to teach the Cat the art of hunting for her owners, 
but that is no reason for asserting that the animal could not be 
taught. 

As to entering the water, every one who is familiar with the 
habits of the Cat knows perfectly well that the Cat will volun- 
tarily enter water in chase of prey. A Cat does not like to wet 
her feet, and will not enter the water without a very powerful 
reason, but when that motive is supplied, she has no hesitation 
about it, A curious and valuable confirmation of this fact 
appeared some time ago in "The Field" newspaper, in which 
was recorded the history of an old fisherman, whose Cat invari- 
ably went to sea with him, and as invariably used to leap over- 
board, seize fish in her mouth, and bring them to the side of the 
boat, where her kindly owner could lift her out, together with 
the captured fish. 

The Cat, then, having been the favoured companion of the 
Egyptians, among whom the Israelites lived while they multi- 
plied from a family into a nation, it does seem very remark- 
able that the sacred writers should not even mention it. There 
is no prohibition of the animal, even indirectly, in the Mosaic 
law ; but it may be the case that the Israelites repudiated the 
Cat simply be(jause it was so favoured by their former masters. 




THE VUG. 65 



THE DOG. 

Aricijathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested throughout 
the Scriptures — Contrast between European and Oriental Dogs — Habits of the 
Dogs of Palestine — The City Dogs and their singular organization— The herds- 
man's Dog— Various passages of Scripture — Dogs and the crumbs — their 
numbers — Sign or Pierotti's experience of the Dogs — Possibility of their perfect 
domestication — The peculiar humiliation of Lazarus — Voracity of the Wild 
Dogs — The fate of Ahab and Jezebel — Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog— 
Innate affection of the Dog towards mankind— Peculiar local Instinct of the 
Oriental Dog — Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople — Tho 
Dervish and his Dogs— The Greyhound— Uncertainty of the word. 

Scarcely changed by the lapse of centuries, the Oriental of the 
present day retains most of the peculiarities which distinguished 
him throughout the long series of years during which the books 
of sacred Scripture were given to the world. In many of these 
characteristics he differs essentially from Europeans of the pre- 
sent day, and exhibits a tone of mind which seems to be not 
merely owing to education, but to be innate and inherent in 
the race. 

One of these remarkable characteristics is the strange loathing 
with which he regards the Dog. In all other parts of the 
world, the Dog is one of the most cherished and valued of 
animals, but among those people whom we popularly class under 
the name of Orientals, the Dog is detested and despised. As the 
sacred books were given to the world through the mediumship 
of Orientals, we find that this feeling towards the Dog is mani- 
fested whenever the animal is mentioned ; and whether we turn 
to the books of the Law, the splendid poetry of the Psalms and 
the book of Job, the prophetical or the historical portions of the 
Old Testament, we find the name of the Dog repeatedly men- 
tioned; and in every case in connexion with some repulsive 
idea. If we turn from the Old to the New Testament, we find 
the same idea manifested, whether in the Gospels, the Epistles, 
or the Revelation. 



5fi STORY OF THE BfBLE ANIMALS. 

To the mind of the true Oriental the verv name of the Doa 
carries with it an idea of something utterly repugnant to his 
nature, and he does not particularly like even the thought of the 
animal coming across his mind. And this is the more extra- 
ordinary, because at the commencement and termination of 
their history the Dog was esteemed by their masters. The 
Egyptians, under whose rule they grew to be a nation, knew 
the value of the Dog, and showed their appreciation in the many 
works of art which have survived to our time. Then the 
Romans, under whose iron grasp the last vestiges of nationality 
crumbled away, honoured and respected the Dog, made it their 
companion, and introduced its portrait into their houses. But. 
true to their early traditions, the Jews of the East have ever held 
the Dog in the same abhorrence as is manifested by their present 
masters, the followers of Mahommed. 

Owing to the prevalence of this feeling, the Dogs of Oriental 
towns are so unlike their more fortunate European relatives, that 
they can hardly be recognised as belonging to the same species. 
In those lands the traveller finds that there is none of the 
wonderful variety which so distinguishes the Dog of Europe. 
There he will never see the bluff, sturdy, smiy, faithful mastiff, 
the slight gazelle-like greyhound, the sharp, intelligent terrier, 
the silent, courageous bulldog, the deep-voiced, tawny blood- 
hoimd, the noble Newfoundland, the clever, vivacious poodle, or 
the gentle, silken-haired spaniel. 

As he traverses the streets, he finds that all the dogs arc 
alike, and that all are gaunt, hungry, half starved, savage, and 
cowardly, more like wolves than dogs, and quite as ready as 
wolves to attack when they fancy they can do so with safety. 
They prowl about the streets in great numbers, living, as they 
best can, on any scraps of food that they may happen to find. 
They have no particular masters, and no particular homos. 
Charitable persons will sometimes feed them, but will never 
make companions of them, feeling that the very contact of a dog 
would be a pollution. They are certainly useful animals, be- 
cause they act as scavengers, and will eat almost any animal 
substance that comes in their way. 

The strangest part of their character is the organization which 
prevails among them. By some extraordinary means they divide 
the town into districts, and not one dog ever ventures out o^ 




DOGS IN AN EASTERN CITY AT NIGHT. 



58 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

that particular district to which it is attached. The boundaries, 
although invisible, are as effectual as the loftiest walls, and not 
even the daintiest morsel will tempt a dog to pass the myste- 
rious line which forms the boundary of his district. Generally, 
these bands of dogs are so savage that any one who is obliged to 
walk in a district where the dogs do not know him is forced to 
carry a stout stick for his protection. Like their Eui^opean rela- 
tives, they have great dislike towards persons who are dressed 
after a fashion to which they are unaccustomed, and therefore 
are sure to harass any one who comes from Europe and wears 
the costume of his own country. As is customary among 
animals which unite themselves in troops, each band is under the 
command of a single leader, whose position is recognised and his 
authority acknowledged by all the members. 

These peculiarities are to be seen almost exclusively in the 
dogs which run wild about the towns, because there is abundant 
evidence in tlie Scriptures that the animal was used in a 
partially domesticated state, certainly for the protection of their 
herds, and possibly for the guardianship of their houses. That 
the Dog was employed for the first of these purposes is shown 
in Job XXX. i : " But now they that are younger than I have me 
in derision, whose fathers I would have disdained to have set 
with the dogs of my flock." And that the animal was used for 
the protection of houses is thought by some commentators to be 
shown by the weU-known passage in Is. Ivi. 10 : " His watch- 
men are blind : they are all ignorant, they are all dumb dogs, 
they cannot bark ; sleeping, lying down, loving to slumber.' 
Still, it is very probable that in this passage the reference is not 
made to houses, but to the flocks and herds which these watch- 
men ought to have guarded. 

The rooted dislike and contempt felt by the Israelites towards 
the Dog is seen in numerous passages. Even in that sentence 
from Job which has just been quoted, wherein the writer pas- 
sionately deplores the low condition into which he has fallen, 
and contrasts it with his former high estate, he complains that 
he is despised by those whose fathers he held even in less esteem 
than the dogs which guarded his herds. There are several re- 
ferences to the Dog in the books of Samuel, in all of which the 
name of the animal is inenlioned contemptuously. For example, 
when ]^a\:d accepted the chdllenge of Goliath, and went Ui 



THE DOG. 



59 



meet his gigautic enemy witliout the ordinary protection (A 
mail, and armed only with a sling and his shepherd's staff 
Goliath said to him, " Am I a dog, that thou comest to me with 
staves?" (1 Sam. xvii. 43.) And in the same book, chapter 
xxiv. 14, David remonstrates with Saul for pursuing so insig- 
nificant a person as himself, and said, " After whom is the King 
of Israel come out ? after a dead dog, after a flea." 

The same metaphor is recorded in the second book of the 
same writer. Once it was employed by Mephibosheth, the lame 
son of Jonathan, when extolling the generosity of David, then 
King of Israel in the place of his grandfather Saul: "And he 
bowed himself, and said, ' What is thy servant, that thou 
shouldest look upon such a dead dog as I am ? ' " (2 Sara. ix. 8.) 







frfi iLftffBlEft&l 



SlIIMEI EXULTING OVER KING DAVID. 



In the same book, chapter xvi. 9, Abishai applies this contemp- 
tuous epithet to Shimei, who was exulting over the troubled 
monarch with all the insolence of a cowardly nature, " Wiiy 
should this dead dog curse my lord the king?" Abner also 
makes use of a similar expression, " Am I a dog's head ? " And 
we may also refer to the familiar pnssage in 2 Kings viii. Ill, 



60 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Elislia had prophesied to Hazael that he would become king on 
the death of Ben-hadad, and that he would work terrible mis- 
chief in the land. Horrified at these predictions, or at all events 
pretending to be so, he replied, " But what, is thy servant a dog, 
that he should do this great thing ? " 

If we turn from the Old to the New Testament, we find the 
same contemptuous feeling displayed towards the Dog. It is 
mentioned as an intolerable aggravation of the sufferings endureil 
by Lazarus the beggar as he lay at the rich man's gate, that the 
dogs came and licked his sores. In several passages, the word 
Dog is employed as a metaphor for scoffers, or unclean persons, 
or sometimes for those who did not belong to the Church, 
whetlier Jewish or Christian. In the Sermon on the Mount 
our Lord himself uses this image, " Give not that which is holy 
unto dogs " (Matt. vii. 6.) In the same ' book, chapter xv. 26, 
Jesus employs the same metaphor when speaking to the 
Canaanitish woman who had come to ask him to heal her 
daughter : " It is not meet to take the children's bread and cast 
it to dogs." And that she understood the meaning of the words 
is evident from her answer, in which faith and humility are so 
admirably blended. Both St. Paul and St. John employ the 
word Dog in the same sense. In his epistle to the Philippians, 
chapter iii. 2, St. Paul writes, " Beware of dogs, beware of evil 
workers." And in the Eevelation, chapter xxii. 14, these words 
occur : " Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they 
may have right to the tree of life, and may enter in through the 

gates to the city ; for without are dogs, and sorcerers, 

and murderers, and idolaters, and whomsoever loveth and maketh 
a lie." 

That the dogs of ancient times formed themselves into bands 
just as they do at present is evident from many passages of 
Scripture, among which may be mentioned those sentences from 
the Psalms, wherein David is comparing the assaults of his 
enemies to the attacks of the dogs which infested the city. 
" Thou hast brought me into the dust of death ; for dogs have 
compassed me, the assembly of the wicked have enclosed me." 
This passage will be better appreciated when the reader has 
perused the following extract from a recent work by Signor 
Pierotti After giving a general account of the Dogs of Pales- 
tine and their customs, he proceeds as follows : — 



THE DOG. 61 

*' lu Jerusalem, and in the other towns, the dogs have an 
organization of their own. They are divided into families and 
districts, especially in the night time, and no one of thf^ni 
ventures to quit his proper quarter; for if he does, he is imme- 
diately attacked by all the denizens of that into which he 
intrudes, and is driven back, with several bites as a reminder. 
Therefore, when an European is walking through Jerusalem by 
night, he is always followed by a number of canine attendants, 
and greeted at every step with growls and howls. These tokens 
of dislike, however, are not intended for him, but for his 
ibllowers, who are availing themselves of his escort to pass 
unmolested from one quarter to another. 

" During a very hard winter, I fed many of the dogs who fre- 
(^uented the road which I traversed almost every evening, and 
afterwards, each time that I passed, I received the homage not only 
of the individuals, but of the whole band to which they belonged, 
for they accompanied me to the limits of their respective jurisdic- 
tions and were ready to follow me to my own house, if I did but 
give them a sign of encouragement, coming at my beck from any 
distance. They even recollected the signal two years afterwards, 
though it was but little that I had given them." 

The account which this experienced writer gives of the animal 
presents a singular mixture of repulsive and pleasing traits, 
the latter beim^ attributable to the true nature of the Doer, and 
the former to the utter neglect with which it is treated. 11(3 
remarks that the dogs which run wild in the cities of Palestim; 
are ill-favoured, ill-scented, and ill-conditioned beasts, more like 
jackals or wolves than dogs, and covered with scars, which 
betoken their quarrelsome nature. Yet, the same animals lose 
their wild, savage disposition, as soon as any human being 
endeavours to establish that relationship which was evidently 
intended to exist between man and the dog. How readily even 
these despised and neglected animals respond to the slightest 
advance, has been already shown by Sig. Pierotti's experience, 
and there is no doubt that these tawny, short-haired, wolf-like 
animals, could be trained as perfectly as their more favoured 
l)rethren of the western world. 

As in the olden times, so at the present day, the dogs lie 
about in the streets, dependent for their livelihood upon the oft'al 
that is flung into the roads, or upon the chance morsels that may 



62 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



be thrown to theni. An allusion to this custom is made in the 
well-known passage in Matt. xv. The reader will remember the 
circumstance that a woman of Canaan, and therefore not an 
Israelite, came to Jesus, and begged him to heal her daughter, 
who was vexed with a devil. Then, to try her faith. He said, " It 




LAZARUS LYI>'G AT THE KICH MAJi'S DOOR. 

is not meet to take the children's bread, and to cast it to dogs." 
And she said, "Truth, Lord: yet the dogs eat of the crumbs 
which fall from their master's table." Now, the " crumbs " which 
are here mentioned are the broken pieces of bread which were 
used at table, much as bread is sometimes used in eating fish. 



THE DOG. 



63 



The form of the "loaves" being flat, and much like that of the 
oat-cake of this country, adapted them well to the purpose. 
The same use of broken bread is alluded to in the parable of 
Lazarus, who desired to be fed with the crumbs that fell from 
the rich man's table, i. e. to partake of the same food as the dogs 
which swarmed round him and licked his sores. 




THE DEATH OF JEZEBEL. 



The " crumbs," however liberally distributed, would not nearly 
suffice for the subsistence of the canine armies, and their chief 
support consists of the offal, which is rather too plentifully flung 
into the streets. If the body of any animal, not excluding 
their own kind, be found lying in the streets, the dogs will 
assemble round it, and tear it to pieces, and they have no 
scruples even in devouring a human body. Of course, owing 
to the peculiar feeling entertained by the Orientals towards 
the Dog, no fate can be imagined more repulsive to the feelings 
of humanity than to be eaten by dogs; and therein lies the 
terror of the fate which was prophesied of Ahab and Jezebel. 
Moreover, the blood, even of the lower animals, was held in 



64 STORY OF TEE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

great sanctity, and it was in those days hardly possible to invoke 
a more dreadful fate upon any one than that his blood should be 
lapped by dogs. 

We lose much of the real force of the Scriptures, if we do not 
possess some notion of the manners and customs of Palestine 
and the neighbouring countries, as well as of the tone of mind 
prevalent among the inhabitants. In our own country, that any 
one should be eaten by dogs would be a fate so contraiy to 
usage, that we can hardly conceive its possibility, and such a 
fate would be out of the ordinary course of events. But, if such 
a fate should happen to befall any one, we should have no 
stronger feeling of pity than the natural regret that the dead 
person was not buried with Christian rites. 

But, with the inhabitants of Palestine, such an event was by 
no means unlikely. It was, and is still, the custom to bury the 
corpse almost as soon as life has departed, and such would 
ordinarily have been the case with the dead body of Jezebel. 
But, through fear of the merciless Jehu, by whose command she 
had been flung from the window of her ow^n palace, no one 
dared to remove her mangled body. The dogs, therefore, seized 
upon their prey; and, even before Jehu had risen from the 
banquet with which he celebrated his deed, nothing was left of 
the body but the skull, the feet, and the hands. 




In Mr. Tristram's work, the author has recognised the true 
dog nature, though concealed behind an uninviting form : " Our 
watch-dog, Beirut, attached himself instinctively to Wilhelm, 
though his canine instinct soon taught him to recognise every 



THE DOG. 65 

one of our party of fourteen, and to cling to the tents, whethoi 
in motion or at rest, as his liome. Poor Bciriit ! though the 
veriest pariah in appearance, thy plebeian form encased as noble 
a dog-heart as ever beat at the sound of a stealthy step." 

The same author records a very remarkable example of the 
sagacity of the native Dog, and the fidelity with which it will 
keep guard over the property of its master. " The guard-house 
provided us, unasked, with an invaluable and vigilant sentry, 
who was never relieved, nor ever quitted the post of duty. The 
poor Turkish conscript, like every other soldier in the world, is 
fond of pets, and in front of the grim turret that served for a 
guard-house was a collection of old orange-boxes and crates, 
thickly peopled with a garrison of dogs of low degree, whose 
attachment to the spot was certainly not purchased by the 
loaves and fishes which fell to their lot. 

" One of the family must indeed have had hard times, for she 
had a family of no less than five dependent on her exertions, 
and on the superlluities of the sentries' mess. With a sagacity 
almost more than canine, the poor gaunt creature had scarcely 
seen our tents pitched before she came over with all her litter 
and deposited them in front of our tent. At once she scanned 
the features of every member of the encampment, and introduced 
herself to our notice. During the week of our stay, she never 
quitted her post, or attempted any depredation on our kitchen- 
tent, which might have led to her banishment. Night and day 
she proved a faithful and vigilant sentry, permitting no stranger, 
human or canine, P]uropean or Oriental, to approach the tents 
without permission, but keeping on the most familiar terms with 
ourselves and our servants. 

"On the morning of our departure, no sooner had she seen our 
camp struck, than she conveyed her puppies back to their old 
quarters in the orange-box, and no entreaties or bribes could 
induce her to accompany us. On three subsequent visits to 
Jerusalem, the same dog acted in a similar way, though no 
longer embarrassed by family cares, and would on no account 
permit any strange dog, nor even her companions at the guard- 
house, to approach within the tent ropes." 

After perusing this account of the Dog of Palestine, two 
points strike the reader. The first is the manner in which the 
Dog, in spite of all the social disadvantages under which it 



Q6 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

labours, displays one of the chief characteristics of canine 
nature, namely, the yearning after human society. The animal 
in question had already attached herself to the guard-house, 
where she could meet with some sort of human converse, though 
the inborn prejudices of the Moslem would prevent the soldiers 
from inviting her to associate with them, as would certainly 
have been done by European soldiers. She nestled undisturbed 
in the orange-box, and, safe under the protection of the guard, 
brought up her young family in their immediate neighbour- 
hood. But, as soon as Europeans arrived, her instinct told her 
that they would be closer associates than the Turkish soldiers 
who were quartered in the guard-house, and accordingly she 
removed herself and her family to the shelter of their tents. 

Herein she carried out the leading principle of a dog's nature. 
A dog must have a master, or at all events a mistress, and just 
in proportion as he is free from human control, does he become 
less dog-like and more wolf-like. In fact, familiar intercourse 
with mankind is an essential part of a dog's true character, and 
the animal seems to be so well aware of this fact, that he will 
always contrive to find a master of some sort, and will endure a 
life of cruel treatment at the hands of a brutal owner rather 
than have no master at all. 

The second point in this account is the singular local instinct 
which characterises the Dogs of Palestine and other easteri^. 
countries, and which is as much inbred in them as the faculty 
of marking game in the pointer, the combative nature in the 
bulldog, the exquisite scent in the bloodhound, and the love of 
water in the NcAvfoundlaud dog. In this country, we fancy that 
the love of locality belongs especially to the cat, and that the 
Dog cares little for place, and much for man. But, in this case, 
we find that the local instinct overpowered the yearning for 
human society. Fond as was this dog of her newly-found 
friends, and faithful as she was in her self-imposed service, she 
would not foUow them away from the spot where she had been 
born, and where she had produced her own young. 

This curious love for locality has evidently been derived 
from the traditional custom of successive generations, which has 
passed from the realm of reason into that of instinct. The 
reader will remember that Sig. Pierotti mentions an instance 
where the dogs which he had been accustomed to feed would 



THE DOO. 67 

follow him as far as the limits of their particular district, but 
would go no farther. The late Albert Smith, in his " Month at 
Constantinople," gives a similar example of this characteristic. 
He first describes the general habits of the dogs. 

On the first night of his arrival, he could not sleep, and went 
to the window to look out in the night. " The noise I heard then 
[ shall never forget. To say that if all the sheep-dogs, in going 
to Smithfield on a market-day, had been kept on the constant 
bark, and pitted against the yelping curs upon all the carts 
in London, they could have given any idea of the canine uproar 
that now first astonished me, would be to make the feeblest of 
images. The whole city rang with one vast riot. Down below 
me, at Tophand — over- about Stamboul — far away at Scutari — 
the whole sixty thousand dogs that are said to overrun Con- 
stantinople appeared engaged in the most active extermination 
of each other, without a moment's cessation. The yelping, howl- 
ing, barking, growling, and snarling, were all merged into one 
uniform and continuous even sound, as the noise of frogs 
becomes when heard at a distance. For hours there was no 
lull. I went to sleep, and woke again, and still, with my win- 
dows open, I heard the same tumult going on ; nor was it until 
daybreak that anything like tranquillity was restored. 

" Going out in the daytime, it is not difficult to find traces of 
the fights of the night about the limbs of all the street dogs. 
There is not one, among their vast number, in the possession of 
a perfect skin. Some have their ears gnawed away or pulled off ; 
others have their eyes taken out ; from the backs and haunches 
of others perfect steaks of flesh had been torn away; and all 
bear the scars of desperate combats. 

" Wild and desperate as is their nature, these poor animals 
are susceptible of kindness. If a scrap of bread is thrown to 
one of them now and then, he does not forget it ; for they have, 
at times, a hard matter to live — not the dogs amongst the shops 
of Galata or Stamboul, but those whose * parish ' lies in the large 
burying-grounds and desert places without the city; for each 
keeps, or rather is kept, to his district, and if he chanced to 
venture into a strange one, the odds against his return would be 
very large. One battered old animal, to whom I used occa- 
sionally to toss a scrap of food, always followed me from the 
hotel to the cross street in Pera, where the two soldiers stood ou 



68 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

guard, but would uever come beyond this point. He knew the 
fate that awaited him had he done so ; and therefore, when 1 
left him, he would lie down in the road, and go to sleep until 
I came back. 

" When a horse or camel dies, and is left about the roads neai 
the city, the bones are soon picked very clean by these dogs, 
and they will carry the skulls or pelves to great distances. T was 
told that they will eat their dead fellows — a curious fact, I 
believe, in canine economy. They are always troublesome, not 
to say dangerous, at night ; and are especially irritated by 
Europeans, whom they will single out amongst a crowd of 
Levantines." 

In the same work there is a short description of a solitary 
dervish, who had made his home in the hollow of a large plane- 
tree, in front of which he sat, surroimded by a small fence of 
stakes only a foot or so in height. Around him, but not ven- 
turing within the fence, were a number of gaunt, half-stars^ed 
dogs, who prowled about him in hopes of having an occasional 
morsel of food thrown to them. Solitary as he was, and scanty 
as must have been the nourishment which he could afford to 
them, the innate trustfulness of the dog-nature induced them 
to attacTi themselves to human society of some sort, though their 
master was one, and they were many — he was poor, and they 
were hungry. 




EASTERN WATER-SELLEK. 



TllK WOLF. 69 



THE WOLF. 

Identity of the animal indisputable — its numbers, past an J present — The Wolf 
never mentioned directly — its general habits — References in Scripture — its 
mingled ferocity and cowardice — its association into packs — The Wolf's bite — 
How it takes its prey— its ravages among the flocks — Allusions to this habit — 
The shepherd and his nightly enemies — Mr. Tristram and the Wolf — A semi 
tamed Wolf at Marsaba. 

There is no doubt that the Hebrew word Zeeb, which occurs in 
a few passages of the Old Testament, is riglitly translated as 
Wolf, and signifies the same animal as is frequently mentioned 
in the New Testament. 

This fierce and dangerous animal was formerly very plentiful 
in Palestine, but is now much less common, owing to the same 
causes which have extirpated the lion from the country. It is a 
rather remarkable fact, that in no passage of Holy Writ is the 
Wolf directly mentioned. Its name is used as a symbol of a 
fierce and treacherous enemy, but neither in the Old nor New 
Testament does any sacred writer mention any act as performed 
by the Wolf. We have already heard of the lion which attacked 
Samson and was killed by him, of the lion which slew the dis- 
obedient prophet, and of the lions which spared Daniel when 
thrown into their den. We also read of the dogs which licked 
Ahab's blood, and ate the body of Jezebel, also of the bears 
which tore the mocking children. 

But in no case is the Wolf mentioned, except in a meta- 
phorical sense ; and this fact is the more remarkable, because the 
animals were so numerous that they were very likely to have 
exercised some influence on a history extending over such a 
lengthened range of years, and limited to so small a portion of 
the earth. Yet we never hear of the Wolf attacking any of the 
personages mentioned in Scripture ; and although we are told of 
the exploit of David, who pursued a lion and a bear that had 
taken a lamb out of his fold, we are nev«^r told of any sinr'lu 
deed in connexion with the Wolf. 



70 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



This animal was then what it is now. Seldom seen by day. 
it lies hidden in its covert as long as the light lasts, and steals 
out in search of prey in the evening. This custom of the Wolf 
is mentioned in several passages of Holy Scripture, such as that 
in Jer. v. 5, 6 : " These have altogether broken the yoke, and 
burst the bonds. Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay 
them, and a wolf of the evenings shall spoil them." In this 
passage the reader will see that the rebellious Israelites are 




WOLVES ATTACKING A FLOCK OF SHEEP. 



compared to restive draught cattle which have broken away from 
their harness and run loose, so that they are deprived of the 
protection of their owners, and exposed to the fury of wild 
beasts. A similar reference is made in Hab. i. 8 : " Their horses 
also are swifter than the leopards, and a,re more fierce than the 
evening wolves." The same habit of the Wolf is alluded to in 



THE WOLF. 71 

Zeph. iii. .'^ : " Her princes within her are roaring lions ; bei 
judgeti are evening wolves." 

Individually, the Wolf is rather a timid animal. It will avoid 
a man rather than meet him. It prefers to steal upon its pre> 
and take it unawares, rather than to seize it openly and boldly. 
It is ever suspicious of treachery, and is always imagining that a 
trap is laid for it. Even the shallow device of a few yards of 
rope trailing from any object, or a strip of cloth fluttering in the 
breeze, is quite sufficient to keep the Wolf at bay for a consider- 
able time. This fact is well known to hunters, who are accus- 
tomed to secure the body of a slain deer by simply tying a strip 
of cloth to its horn. If taken in a trap of any kind, or even if 
it fancies itself in an enclosure from which it can find nc egress, 
it loses aU courage, and wiU submit to be killed without offering 
the least resistance. It will occasionally endeavour to effect its 
escape by feigning death, and has more than once been known to 
succeed in this device. 

But, collectively, the Wolf is one of the most dangerous 
animals that can be found. Herding together in droves when 
pressed by hunger, the wolves will openly hunt prey, performing 
this task as perfectly as a pack of trained hounds. Full of wiles 
themselves, they are craftily wise in anticipating the wiles of 
the animals which they pm-sue ; and even in full chase, while the 
body of the pack is following on the footsteps of the flying 
animal, one or two are detached on the flanks, so as to cut it off 
if it should attempt to escape by doubling on its pursuers. 

There is no animal which a herd of wolves will not attack, 
and very few which they will not ultimately secure. Strength 
avails nothing against the numbers of these savage foes, which 
give no moment of rest, but incessantly assail their antagonist, 
dashing by instinct at those parts of the body which can be 
least protected, and lacerating with their peculiar short, snapping 
bite. Should several of their number be killed or disabled, it 
makes no difference to the wolves, except that a minute or two 
are wasted in devouring their slain or wounded brethren, and 
they only return to the attack the more excited by the taste of 
blood. Swiftness of foot avails nothing against the tireless per- 
severance of the wolves, who press on in their peculiar, long, 
slinging gallop, and in the end are sure to tire out the swifter 
footed but ler.s endurinG: animal that flees before them. T'se 



72 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



ritately buffalo is conquered by the ceaseless assaults of the 
wolves ; the bear has been forced to succumb to them, and the 
fleet-footed stag finds his swift limbs powxrless to escape the 
pursuing band, and his branching horns unable to resist their 
furious onset when once they overtake him. 




WOLVES CHASIXG DEER. 



That the Wolf is a special enemy to the sheep-fold is shown 
in many parts of the Scriptures, both in the Old and New Tes- 
taments, especially in the latter. In John x. 1-16, Jesus com- 
pares himself to a good shepherd, who w^atciies over the fold, 
and, if the wolves should come to take the sheep, would rather 
give up His life than they should succeed. But the false teachers 
are compared to bad shepherds, hired for money, but having no 
interest in the sheep, and who therefore will not expose them- 
selves to danger in defence of their charge. 

This metaphor was far more effective in Palestine, and at that 
time, than it is in this country and at the present day. In this 



THE WOLF. 



73 




74 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

land, the shepherd has no anxiety about the inroads of wild 
beasts, but in Palestine one of his chief cares was to keep watch 
at night lest the wolves should attack the fold, and to drive them 
away himself in case they should do so. Therefore the shep- 
herd's life was one which involved no small danger as well as 
anxiety, and the metaphor used by our Lord gains additional 
force from the knowledge of this fact. 

A similar metaphor is used when Jesus wished to express in 
forcible terms the dangers to which the chosen seventy would 
oft be subjected, and the impossibility that they should be able 
to overcome the many perils with which they would be sur- 
rounded. " Go your ways : behold, I send you forth as lambs 
am.ong wolves " (Luke x. 3). 

Mr. Tristram several times met wolves while he was engaged 
in his travels, and mostly saw solitary specimens. One such 
encounter took place in the wilderness of Judah : " On my w^ay 
back, I met a fine solitary wolf, who watched me very coolly, at 
the distance of sixty yards, while I drew my charge and dropped 
a bullet down the barrel. Though I sent the ball into a rock 
between his legs as he stood looking at me in the wady, he was 
not sufficiently alarmed to do more than move on a little more 
quickly, ever and anon tui-ning to look at me, while gradually 
increasing his distance. Darkness compelled me to desist from 
the chase, when he quietly turned and followed me at a respect- 
ful distance. He was a magnificent- animal, larger than any 
European wolf, and of a much lighter colour." 

Those who are acquainted with the character of the animal 
will appreciate the truthfulness of this description. The cautious 
prowl at a distance, the slow trot away when he fancied he 
might be attacked, the reverted look, and the final turning back 
and following at a respectful distance, are all characteristic traits 
of the Wolf, no matter to what species it may belong, nor what 
country it may inhabit. 

On another occasion, while riding in the open plain of Gen- 
nesaret, the horse leaped over the bank of a little ditch, barely 
three feet in depth. After the horse had passed, and not until 
then, a Wolf started out of the ditch, literally from under the 
horse s hoofs, and ran off. The animal had been crouching under 
the little bank, evidently watching for some cows and calves 
which were grazing at a short distance, under the charge of a 



THE WOLF. 



75 




Bedouin boy. The same author 
mentions that one of the monks 
belonging to the monastery at 
Marsaba had contrived to ren- 
der a Wolf almost tame. Every 
evening at six o'clock the Wolf 
came regularly across the ravine, ate a 
piece of bread, and then -went back again. 
With the peculiar jealousy of all tamed animals, the Wolf would 
not suffer any of his companions to partake of his good fortune. 
Several of them would sometimes accompany him, but as soon as they 
came under the wall of the monastery he always drove them away. 
The inhabitants of Palestine say that the Wolves of that coun- 
try hunt singly, or at most in little packs of few in number. Still 
they dread the animal exceedingly on account of the damage it 
inflicts upon their flocks of sheep and goats. 




THE JACKAL. 



THE FOX OR JACKAL. 



The two animals comprehended under one name — The Jackal — its numbers in 
ancient and modem Palestine — General habits of the Jackal — Localities where 
the Jackal is foimd — Samson, and the three hundred "foxes" — Popular 
objections to the narrative — The required number easily obtained — Siguor 
Pierotti's remarks upon the Jackal— An unpleasant position — How the fields 
were set on fire — The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts — The truth of tne 
narrative proved — The Fox and Jackal destructive among grapes 

Theee are several passages in the Old Testament in which the 
word Fox occurs, and it is almost certain that the Hebrew word 
Shiidl, which is rendered in our translation as Fox, is used rather 
loosely, and refers in some places to the Jackal, and in others tc 

76 



THE FOX OR JACKAL. 77 

the Fox. We will first take those passages in which the foniiei 
rendering of the word is evidently the right one, and will begin 
by examining those characteristics of the animal which afford 
grounds for such an assertion. 

Even at the present time, the Jackal is extremely plentiful iD 
Palestine ; and as the numbers of wild beasts have much de- 
creased in modern days, the animals must have been even more 




FOXES OR JACKALS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A GOAT. 

numerous than they are at present. It is an essentially noc- 
turnal and gregarious animal. During the whole of the day the 
Jackals lie concealed in their holes or hiding-places, which are 
usually cavities in the rocks, in tombs, or among ruins. At 
nightfall they issue from their dens, and form themselves into 
packs, often consisting of several hundred individuals, and prowl 
about in search of food. Carrion of various kinds forms theij 



78 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

chief subsistence, and they perform in the country much the 
same task as is fulfilled by the dogs in the cities. 

If any animal should be killed, or even severely wounded, the 
Jackals are sure to find it out and to devour it before the day- 
break. They will scent out the track of the hunter, and feed 
upon the offal of the beasts which he has slaia. If the body of 
a human being were to be left on the ground, the Jackals would 
certainly leave but little traces of it ; and in the olden times of 
warfare, they must have held high revelry in the battle-field 
after the armies had retired. It is to this propensity of the 
Jackal that David refers — himself a man of war, who had 
fought on many a battle-field, and must have seen the carcases 
of the slain mangled b}^ these nocturnal prowlers : " Those that 
seek my soul, to destroy it, shall go into the lower parts of the 
earth. They shall faU by the sword ; they shall be a portion for 
foxes " (Ps. Ixiii. 9, 10). Being wild beasts, afraid of man, and 
too cowardly to attack him even when rendered furious by 
hunger, and powerful by force of numbers, they keep aloof from 
towns and cities, and live in the uninhabited parts of the 
country. Therefore the prophet Jeremiah, in his Book of 
Lamentations, makes use of the following forcible image, when 
deploring the pitiful state into which Judaea had fallen : " For 
this our heart is faint ; for these things our eyes are dim : 
because of the mountain of Zion, which is desolate, the foxes 
walk upon it " (Lam. v. 17). And Ezekiel makes use of a similar 
image : " Israel, thy prophets are like foxes in the desert." 

But, by far the most important passage in which the Fox 
is mentioned, is that wherein is recorded the grotesque 
vengeance of Samson upon the Philistines : " And Samson went 
and caught three hundred foxes, and took firebrands, and turned 
tail to tail, and put a firebrand in the midst between two tails. 
And when he had set the brands on fire, he let them go into the 
standing corn of the Philistines, and burnt up both the shocks 
and also the standing corn, with the vineyards and olives" 
(Judges XV. 4, 5). Now, as this is one of the passages of Holy Writ 
to which great objections have been taken, it will be as well to 
examine these objections, and see whether they have any real 
force. The first of these objections is, that the number of foxes 
is far too great to have been caught at one time, and to this 
objection two answers have been given. The first answer is, that 




FEAST IN I'liOSri^CT. 



80 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

they need not have been caught at once, but by degrees, and 
kept until wanted. But the general tenor of the narrative is 
undoubtedly in favour of the supposition that this act of Samson 
was unpremeditated, and that it was carried into operation at 
once, before his anger had cooled. The second answer is, that 
the requisite number of Foxes might have been miraculously 
sent to Samson for this special purpose. This theory is really 
so foolish and utterly untenable, that I only mention it because 
it has been put forward. It fails on two grounds : the first 
being that a miracle would hardly have been wrought to enable 
Samson to revenge himself in so cruel and unjustifiable a 
manner ; and the second, that there was not the least necessity 
for any miracle at all. 

If we put out of our minds the idea of the English Fox, an 
animal comparatively scarce in this country, and solitary in its 
habits, and substitute the extremely plentiful and gregarious 
Jackal, wandering in troops by night, and easily decoyed by 
hunger into a trap, we shall see that double the number might 
have been taken, if needful. Moreover, it is not to be imagined 
that Samson caught them all with his own hand. He was at 
the head of his people, and had many subordinates at his 
command, so that a large number of hunters might have been 
employed simultaneously in the capture. In corroboration of 
this point, I insert an extremely valuable extract from Signor 
Pierotti's work, in which he makes reference to this very portion 
of the sacred history : — 

" It is still very abundant near Gaza, Askalon, Ashdod, Ekron, 
dud Eamleh. I have frequently met with it during my wan- 
derings by night, and on one occasion had an excellent oppor- 
tunity of appreciating their number and their noise. 

" One evening in the month of January, while it was raining 
a perfect deluge, I was obliged, owing to the dangerous illness 
of a friend, to return from Jerusalem to Jaffa. The depth 
of snow on the road over a great part of the mountain, the 
clayey .mud in the plain, and the darkness of the night, pre- 
vented my advancing quickly ; so that about half-past three in 
the morning I arrived on the bank of a small torrent, about 
half an hour's journey to the east of Eamleh. I wished to 
cross: my horse at first refused, but, on my spurring it, ad- 
vanced and at once sank up to the breast, followed of course by 




A FEAST SECURED. 



82 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

my legs, thus teaching me to respect the instinct of an Arah 
horse for the future. 

" There I stuck, without the possibility of escape, and consoled 
my horse and myself with some provisions that I had in my 
saddle-bags, shouting and singing at intervals, in tlie hope of 
obtaining succour, and of preventing accidents, as I knew that 
the year before a mule in the same position had been mistaken 
for a wild beast, and killed. The darkness was profound, and 
the wind very high ; but, happily, it was not cold ; for the only 
things attracted by my calls were numbers of jackals, who 
remained at a certain distance from me, and responded to my 
cries, especially when I tried to imitate them, as though they 
took me for their music-master. 

" About five o'clock, one of the guards of the English con- 
sulate at Jerusalem came from Eamleh and discovered my state. 
He charitably returned thither, and brought some men, who 
extricated me and my horse from our unpleasant bath, which, as 
may be supposed, was not beneficial to our legs. 

" During this most uncomfortable night, I had good oppor- 
tunity of ascertaining that, if another Samson had wished to 
burn again the crops in the country of the Philistines, he would 
have had no difficulty in finding more than three hundred 
jackals, and catching as many as he wanted in springs, traps, 
or pitfalls. (See Ps. cxl. 5.)" 

The reader will now see that there was not the least difficulty 
in procuring the requisite number of animals, and that con- 
sequently the first objection to the truth of the story is dis- 
posed of. 

We will now proceed to the second objection, which is, that if 
the animals were' tied tail to tail, they would remain on or near 
the same spot, because they would pull in different directions, 
and that, rather than i-un about, they would turn round and 
fight each other. Now, in the first place, we are nowhere told 
that the tails of the foxes, or jackals, were placed in contact with 
each other, and it is probable that some little space was left 
between them. That animals so tied would not run in a straight 
line is evident enough, and this was exactly the effect which 
Samson wished to produce. Had they been at liberty, and the 
fiery brand fastened to their tails, they would have run straight 
to their dens, and produced but little effect. But their captor, 



84 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

with cruel ingenuity, had foreseen this contingency, and, b^ 
the method of securing them which he adopted, forced them to 
pursue a devious course, each animal trying to escape from the 
dreaded firebrand, and struggling in vain endeavours to drag its 
companion towards its own particular den. 

All wild animals have an instinctive dread of fire ; and there 
is none, not even the fierce and courageous lion, that dares enter 
within the glare of the bivouac fire. A lion has even been 
struck in the face with a burning brand, and has not ventured 
to attack the man that wielded so dreadful a weapon. Conse- 
quently it may be imagined that the unfortunate animals that 
were used by Samson for his vindictive purpose, must have been 
filled with terror at the burning brands which they di'agged after 
them, and the blaze of the fire which was kindled wherever 
they went. They would have no leisure to fight, and would only 
think of escaping from the dread and unintelligible enemy which 
pursued them. 

When a prairie takes fire, all the wild inhabitants flee in 
terror, and never think of attacking each other, so that the bear, 
the wolf, the cougar, the deer, and the wild swdne, may all be 
seen huddled together, their natural antagonism quelled in the 
presence of a common foe. So it must have been with the 
miserable animals which were made the unconscious instruments 
of destruction. That they would stand still when a burning 
brand was between them, and when flames sprang up around 
them, is absurd. That they would pull in exactly opposite 
directions with precisely balanced force is equally improbable, 
and it is therefore evident that they would pursue a devious 
path, the stronger of the two dragging the weaker, but being 
jerked out of a straight course and impeded by the resistance 
which it would offer. That they would stand on the same spot 
and fight has been shown to be contrary to the custom of 
animals under similar circumstances. 

Thus it will be seen that every objection not only falls to the 
ground, but carries its own refutation, thus vindicating this 
episode in sacred history, and showing, that not only were the 
circumstances possible, but that they were highly probable. Of 
course every one of the wretched animals must have been ulti- 
mately burned to death, after suffering a prolonged torture from 
the firebrand that was attached to it. Such a consideration 



THE HYjENA. 85 

would, however, have had no effect for deterring Samson from 
employing them. The Orientals are never sparing of pain, even 
,when inflicted upon human beings, and in too many cases they 
seem utterly unable even to comprehend the cruelty of which 
they are guilty. And Samson was by no means a favourable 
specimen of his countrymen. He was the very incarnation of 
strength, but was as morally weak as he was corporeally power- 
ful ; and to that weakness he owed his fall. Neither does he 
seem to possess the least trace of forbearance any more than of 
self-control, but he yields to his own undisciplined nature, places 
himself, and through him the whole Israelitish nation, in 
jeopardy, and then, with a grim humour, scatters destruction on 
every side in revenge for the troubles which he has brought 
upon himseK by his own acts. 



THE HY^NA. 

The Hyana not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded to — Signification of 
the word Zabua — Translated in the Septuagint as Hyaena — A scene described 
by the prophet Isaiah — The Hysena plentiful in Palestine at the present day 
— its well-known cowardice and fear of man — The uses of the Hyaena and the 
services which it renders — The particular species of Hyaena — The Hyaena in 
the burial -gi'ounds — Hunting the Hysena- Curious superstition respecting the 
talismanic properties of its skin —Precautions adopted in flaying it — Popular 
legends of the Hyaena and its magical powers — The cavern home of the Hyaena 
—The valley of Zeboim. 

Although in our version of the Scriptures the Hyaena is not 
mentioned by that name, there are two passages in the Old 
Testament which evidently refer to that animal, and therefore it 
is described in these pages. If the reader will refer to the 
prophet Jeremiah, xii. 7-9, he will find these words : " I 
have forsaken mine house, I have left mine heritage; I have 
given the dearly beloved of my soul into the hand of her 
enemies. Mine heritage is unto me as a lion in the forest ; it 
crieth out against me : therefore have I hated it. Mine heritage 
is unto me as a speckled bird ; the birds round about are against 
her : come ye, assemble all the beasts of the field, come to 
devour." Now, the word zdbvAi signifies something that is 
streaked, and in the Authorized Version it is rendered as a 



86 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

speckled bird. But in the Septuagint it is rendered as Hyaena, 
and this translation is thought by many critical writers to be 
the true one. It is certain that the word zdbua is one of the 
four names by which the Talmudical writers mention the Hysena, 
when treating of its character; and it is equally certain that 
fcuch a rendering makes the passage more forcible, and is in 
perfect accordance with the habits of predacious animals. 

The whole scene which the Prophet thus describes was evi- 
dently familiar to him. First, we have the image of a deserted 
country, allowed to be overrun with wild beasts. Then we have 
the lion, which has struck down its prey, roaring with exultation, 
and defying any adversary to take it from him. Then, the lion 
having eaten his lill and gone away, we have the Hyaenas, vul- 
tures, and other carrion-eating creatures, assembling around the 
carcase, and hastening to devour it. This is a scene which has 
been witnessed by many hunters who have pursued their sport 
in lands where lions, hyaenas, and vultures are found; and all 
these creatures were inhabitants of Palestine at the time when 
Jeremiah wrote. 

At the present day, the Hyaena is still plentiful in Palestine, 
though in the course of the last few years its numbers have 
sensiblj^ diminished. The solitary traveller, when passing by 
night from one town to another, often falls in with the Hyaena, 
but need suffer no fear, as it will not attack a human being, and 
prefers to slink out of his way. But dead, and dying, or 
wounded animals are the objects for which it searches ; and 
when it finds them, it devours the whole of its prey. The lion 
will strike down an antelope, an ox, or a goat — will tear off its 
flesh with its long fangs, and lick the bones with its rough 
tongue until they are quite cleaned. The wolves and jackals 
will follow the lion, and eat every soft portion of the dead 
animal, while the vultures will fight with them for the coveted 
morsels. But the Hyaena is a more accomplished scavenger 
than lion, wolf, jackal, or vulture ; for it will eat the very bones 
themselves, its tremendously-powerful jaws and firmly-set teeth 
enabling it to crush even the leg-bone of an ox, and its un- 
paralleled digestive powers enabling it to assimilate the sharp 
and hard fragments which would kiU any creature not con- 
stituted like itseK. 

In a wild, or even a partially-inhabited coimtry, the Hyaena 




LEOPARD ROBBED OF ITS I'REY BY HYiENAS. 



88 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

is, therefore, a most useful animal. It may occasionally kill a 
crippled or weakly ox, and sometimes carry off a sheep ; but, 
even in tha.t case, no very great harm is done, for it does not 
meddle with any animal that can resist. But these few delin- 
quencies are more than compensated by the great services which 
it renders as scavenger, consuming those substances which even 
the lion cannot eat, and thus acting as a scavenger in removing 
objects which would be offensive to sight and injurious to 
health. 

The species which is mentioned in the Scriptures is the Striped 
Hyaena {Hycena striata) ; but the habits of all the species are 
almost exactly similar. We are told by travellers of certain 
towns in different parts of Africa which would be unendurable 
but for the Hyaenas. With the disregard for human life which 
prevails throughout all savage portions of that country, the rulers 
of these towns order executions almost daily, the bodies of the 
victims being allowed to lie where they happened to fall. No 
one chooses to touch them, lest they should also be added to the 
list of victims, and the decomposing bodies would soon cause a 
pestilence but for the Hyaenas, who assemble at night round 
the bodies, and by the next morning have left scarcely a trace of 
the murdered men. 

Even in Palestine, and in the present day, the Hyaena will 
endeavour to rifle the grave, and to drag out the interred corpse. 
The bodies of the rich are buried in rocky caves, whose entrances 
are closed with heavy stones, which the Hyaena cannot move ; 
but those of the poor, which, are buried in the ground, must be 
defended by stones heaped over them. Even when this pre- 
caution is taken, the Hyaena will sometimes find out a weak 
spot, drag out the body, and devour it. 

In consequence of this propensity, the inhabitants have an 
utter detestation of the animal. They catch it whenever they 
can, in pitfalls or snares, using precisely the same means as were 
employed two thousand years ago ; or they hunt it to its den, 
and then kill it, stripping off the hide, and carrying it about stiU 
wet, receiving a small sum of money from those to whom they 
show it. Afterwards the skin is dressed, by rubbing it with lime 
and salt, and steeping it in the waters of the Dead Sea. It is then 
made into sandals and leggings, which are thought to be power- 
ful charms, and to defend the wearer fi'om the Hyaena's bite. 



THE HYJENA. 



89 



They always observe certain superstitious precautions in flay- 
ing the dead animal. Believing that the scent of the flesh 
would corrupt the air, they invariably take the carcase to the 
leeward of the tents before they strip off the skin. Even in the 
animal which has been kept for years in a cage, and has eaten 
nothing but fresh meat, the odour is too powerful to be agreeable, 




HYENAS DEVOURIKG BONKS. 



as I can testify from practical experience when dissecting a 
Hysena that had died in the Zoological Gardens ; and it is evident 
that the scent of an animal that has lived all its life on carrion 
must be almost unbearable. The skin being removed, the carcase 
is burnt, because the hunters think that by this process the 
other Hysenas are prevented from finding the body of their 
comrade, and either avenging its death or taking warning by 
ite fate. 



90 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Superstitions seem to be singularly prevalent concerning the 
Hy?ena. In Palestine, there is a prevalent idea that if a Hyaena 
meets a solitary man at night, it can enchant him in such a 
manner as to make him follow it through thickets and over 
rocks, until he is quite exhausted, and falls an unresisting prey • 
but that over two persons he has no such influence, and therefore 
a solitary traveller is gravely advised to call for help as soon as 
he sees a Hysena, because the fascination of the beast would be 
neutralized by the presence of a second person. So firmly is 
this idea rooted in the minds of the inhabitants, that they will 
never travel by night, unless they can find at least one companion 
in their journey. 

In Northern Africa there are many strange superstitions con- 
nected with this animal, one of the most curious of which is 
founded on its well-known cowardice. The Arabs fancy that 
any weapon which has killed a Hyaena, whether it be gun, 
sword, spear, or dagger, is thenceforth unfit to be used in war- 
fare. " Throw away that sword," said an Arab to a French 
officer, who had killed a Hyaena, " it has slain the Hyaena, and it 
will be treacherous to you." 

At the present day, its numbers are not nearly so great in 
Palestine as they used to be, and are decreasing annually. The 
cause of this diminution lies, according to Signer Pierotti, more 
in the destruction of forests than in the increase of population 
and the use of fire-arms, though the two latter causes havp. 
undoubtedly considerable influence. 

There is a very interesting account by Mr. Tristram of the 
haunt of these animals. While exploring the deserted quarries 
of Es Sumrah, between Beth-arabah and Bethel, he came upon a 
wonderful mass of hyaenine relics. The quarries in which were 
lying the haK-hewn blocks, scored with the marks of wedges, 
had evidently formed the resort of Hyaenas for a long series of 
years. "Vast heaps of bones of camels, oxen, and sheep had 
been collected by these animals, in some places to the depth of 
two or three feet, and on one spot I counted the skulls of seven 
camels. There were no traces whatever of any human remains. 
We had here a beautiful recent illustration of the mode of 
foundation of the old bone cavems, so valuable to the geologist 
These bones must all have been brought in by the Hyaenas, as 
no camel or sheep could possibly have entered the caverns alive, 



THE HYuENA. 91 

aor could any floods have washed them in. Near the entrance 
where the water percolates, they were already forming a soft 
breccia.'* 

The second allusion to the Hyaena is made in 1 Sam. xiii. 18, 
" Another company turned to the way of the border that looketh 
to the Valley of Zeboim towards the wilderness," i.e. to the 
Valley of Hyaenas. 

The colour of the Striped Hyaena varies according to its age. 
When young, as is the case with many creatures, birds as well 
as mammals, the stripes from which it derives its name are 
much more strongly marked than in the adult specimen. The 
general hue of the fur is a pale grey -brown, over which are 
drawn a number of dark stripes, extending along the ribs and 
across the limbs. 

In the young animal these stripes are nearly twice as dark 
and twice as wide as in the adult, and they likewise appear on 
the face and on other parts of the body, whence they afterwards 
vanish. The fur is always rough; and along the spine, and espe- 
cially over the neck and shoulders, it is developed into a kind 
of mane, which gives a very fierce aspect to the animal. The 
illustration shows a group of Hyaenas coming to feed on the 
relics of a dead animal. The jackals and vultures have eaten as 
much of the flesh as they can manage, and the vultures are 
sitting, gorged, round the stripped bones. The Hyaenas are now 
coming up to play their part as scavengers, and have already 
begun to break up the bones in their crushing-mills oi' jaws. 



92 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE WEASEL. 

Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture — The Weasel of Palestine - 
Suggested identity with the Ichneumon. 

The word Weasel occurs once in the Holy Scriptures, and 
therefore it is necessary that the animal should be mentioned. 
There is a great controversy respecting the identification of the 
animal, inasmuch as there is nothing in the context which gives 
the slightest indication of its appearance or habits. 

The passage in question is that which prohibits the Weasel and 
the mouse as unclean animals (see Lev. xi. 29). Now the word 
which is here translated Weasel is Glioled, or GhoVd ; and, I 
believe, never occurs again in the whole of the Old Testament. 
Mr. W. Houghton conjectures that the Hebrew word Choled is 
identical with the Arabic Ghuld and the Syriac Chuldo, both 
words signifying a mole ; and therefore infers that the unclean 
animal in question is not a Weasel, but a kind of mole. 

. The Weasel does exist in Palestine, and seems to be as plentiful 
there as in our own country. Indeed, the whole tribe of Weasels 
is well represented, and the polecat is seen there as well as the 
Weasel. 

There is hardly any animal which, for its size, is so much dreaded 
by the creatures on it which it preys as the common Weasel. 

Although its small proportions render a single Weasel an insig- 
nificant opponent to man or dog, yet it can wage a sharp battle 
even with such powerful foes, and refuses to yield except at the 
last necessity. 

The proportions of the Weasel are extremely small, a full-grown 
male not exceeding ten inches in length. The color of its fur is 
bright reddish-brown on the upper parts of the body, and the 
under-portions are pure white. The audacity and courage of this 
little animal are really remarkable. It seems to hold every being 
except itself in the most sovereign contempt, and, to all appear- 
ances, is as ready to match itself against a man as against a mouse. 

It is a terrible foe to many of the smaller animals, such as rats 



94 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

and mice, and performs a really good service to the farmer in de- 
stroying many of these farmyard pests. The Weasel is specially 
dreaded by rats and mice, because there is no hole through which 
they can pass that will not also admit the passage of their enemy ; 
and, as the Weasel is most persevering and determined in pursuit, 
it seldom happens that rats or mice escape when their little foe has 
set itself fairly on their track. 

Not only does the Weasel pursue its prey through the windings 
of the burrows, but it will even cross water in the chase. When 
it has at last reached its victim, it leaps upon the devoted creature 
and endeavours to fix its teeth in the back of the neck, where it 
retains its deadly hold in spite of every struggle on the part of the 
wounded animal. If the attack be rightly made and the animal a 
small one, the Weasel can drive its teeth into the brain and cause 
instantaneous death. 

The Weasel is very fond of eggs, and young birds of all kinds. 
It is said that an Qgg that has been broken by a Weasel, can always 
be recognized, by the peculiar mode which the little creature em- 
ploys for the purpose. 

Instead of breaking the Qgg to pieces or biting a large hole in 
the shell, the Weasel contents itself with making quite a small 
aperture at one end, through which it abstracts the liquid contents. 

A curious example of the courage of the Weasel, is related by a 
gentleman who while crossing a field at dusk, saw an owl pounce 
upon some object on the ground, and carry it in the air. 

In a short time the bird showed signs of distress, trying to free 
itself from some annoying object by means of its talons, and flap- 
ping about in a very bewildered manner. 

Soon afterwards the owl fell dead to the earth ; and when the 
spectator of the aerial combat approached, a weasel ran away from 
the dead body of the bird, itself being apparently uninjured. On 
examination of the owl's body, it was found that the Weasel, which 
had been marked out for the owl's repast, had in its turn become 
the assailant, and had attacked the unprotected parts which lie 
beneath the wings. A considerable wound had been made in that 
spot, and the large blood-vessels torn through. 




THE BITER T! 




THE BADGEE. 



Difficulty in identifying the Tackash of Scripture — References to "Badgers' 

skins " — The Dugong thought to be the Badger — The Bedouin sandals— 

Nature of the materials for the Tabernacle — Habits of the Badger — The species 

found in Palestine— Uses of the Badgers' skins — Looseness of zoological 

. terras. 



Until very lately, there was mucli difficulty in ascertaining 
whether the word Tachash has been rightly translated as 
Badger. It occurs in several parts of the Scriptures, and almost 
invariably is used in relation to a skin or fur of some sort. We 
will first examine the passages in which the Badger is men- 
tioned, and then proceed to identify the animal. 

Nearly all the references to the Badger occur in the book of 
Exodus, and form part of the directions for constructing the 
Tabernacle and its contents. The first notice of the word occurs 
in Exodus xxv. 5, where the people of Israel are ordered to 
bring their offerings for the sanctuary, among which offerings are 
gold, silver, and brass, blue, purple, and scarlet, fine linen, goats' 
hair, rams' skins dyed red, badgers' skins, and shittim wood — aU 
these to be used in the construction of the Tabernacle. Then a 
Little farther on, in chapter xxvi. 14, we find one of the special 
uses to which the badgers' skins were to be put, namely, to make 
the outer covering or roof of the tabernacle. Another use for 
the badgers' skins was to form an outer covering for the aik, table 

96 



THE BADGER. 97 

of sliewbread, and other furniture of the Tabernacle, when tlie 
people were on the march. 

In all these cases the bad«^er-skin is used as a covering to 
defend a building or costly furniture, but there is one example 
where it is employed for a different purpose. This passage 
occurs in the book of Ezekiel, cliapter xvi. 10. The prophet is 
speaking of Jerusalem under the image of a woman, and uses 
these words, " I anointed thee with oil ; I clothed thee also with 
broidered work, and shod thee with badger's skin, and I girded 
thee about with fine linen, and I covered thee with silk. I 
decked thee also with ornaments, and I put bracelets upon thy 
hands, and a chain upon thy neck, and I put a jewel on thy 
forehead, and earrings in thine ears, and a beautiful crown upon 
thine head." 

So we have here the fact, that the same material which was 
used for the covering of the Tabernacle, and of the sacred furni- 
ture, could also be used for the manufacture of shoes. This 
passage is the more valuable because of an inference which may 
be drawn from it. The reader will see that the badger-skin, 
whatever it may have been, must have been something of con- 
siderable value, and therefore, in all probability, something of 
much rarity. 

In the present instance, it is classed with the most luxurious 
robes that were known in those days, and it is worthy of special 
mention aniong the bracelet, earrings, necklace, and coronal with 
which the symbolized city was adorned. If the reader will now 
refer to the passage in which the children of Israel were com- 
manded to bring their offerings, he will see that in those cases 
also the badger-skins were ranked with the costliest articles ol 
apparel that could be found, and had evidently been brought 
from Egypt, the peculiar home of all the arts ; together v/ith the 
vast quantity of gold and jewels which were used for the same 
sacred purpose. 

Now we find that the badger-skins in question must possess 
three qualities : they must be costly, they must be capable of 
forming a defence against the weather, and they must be strong 
enough to be employed in the manufacture of shoes. If we 
accept the word Tachash as signifyinsj a Badger, we shall find 
that these conditions have been fulfilled. 

Bui many commentators have thought that badger-skins could 
5 



98 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

not have been procured in sufficient numbers for tlie purpose, 
and have therefore conjectured that some other animal must be 
signified by the word Tachash. 

A species of dugong {Halicore hemjprichii) is the animal that 
has been selected as the Badger of the Scriptures. It is one of 
the marine mammalia, and always lives near the shore, where it 
can find the various algae on which it feeds. It is a gregarious 
animal, and, as it frequently ascends rivers for some distance, it 
may be captured in sufficient numbers to make both its flesh 
and skin useful Moreover, it is of considerable size, fourteen 
or fifteen feet in length being its usual dimensions, so that a 
comparatively small number of the skins would be required for 
the covering of the Tabernacle. 

That shoes can be made of it is evident from the fact that at 
the present day shoes, or rather sandals, are made from its hide, 
and are commonly used by the Bedouins. But the very qualities 
and peculiarities which render it a fit material for the sandal of a 
half-naked Bedouin Arab, who has to walk continually over hard, 
hot, sandy, and rough ground, would surely make it unsuitable for 
the delicate shoes worn by a woman of rank who spends her 
time in the house, and the rest of whose clothing is of fine linen 
and silk, embroidered with gold and jewels. In our own country, 
the hobnailed shoes of the ploughman and the slight shoe of a 
lady are made of very different materials, and it is reasonable 
to conjecture that such was the case when the pass%e in ques- 
tion was written. 

Then Dr. Eobinson, who admits that the hide of the dugong 
could hardly have been used as the material for a lady's shoe, 
thinks that it would have answered very well for the roof of the 
Tabernacle, because it was large, clumsy, and coarse. It seems 
strange that he did not also perceive that the two latter qualities 
would completely disqualify such skins for that service. Every- 
thing clumsy and coarse was studiously prohibited, and nothing 
but the very best was considered fit for the Tabernacle of the 
Lord. By special revelation, Moses was instructed to procure, 
not merely the ordinary timber of the country for the frame- 
work — not only the fabrics which would keep out rain and 
v;'nd — not simply the metals in common use, from, which 
to make the lamps and other furniture — not the ordinary 
oils for supplying the lamps ; but, on the contrary, the finest 




bad(ji:rs. 



100 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

linen, the most elaborate embroidery, the . rarest woods, the 
purest gold, the costliest gems, were demanded, and nothing 
common or inferior was accepted. The commonest material 
that was permitted was the long, soft fleece of rams' wool; 
but, even in that case, the wool had to be dyed of the regal 
scarlet — a dye so rare and so costly that none but the 
wealthiest rulers could use it. Even the very oil that burned 
in the lamps must be the purest olive-oil, prepared expressly 
for that purpose. 

The very fact, therefore, that any article was plentiful and 
could easily be obtained, would be a proof that such article was 
not used for so sacred a purpose ; while it is impossible that 
anything coarse and clumsy could have been accepted for the 
construction of that Tabernacle within which the Shekinah ever 
burned over the Mercy-seat — over which the cloud rested by 
day, and the fire shone by night, ^-isible external proofs of the 
Divine glory within. 

We therefore dismiss from our minds the possibility of accept- 
ing any material for it which was not exceptionably valuable, 
and. which would be employed in the uses of ordinary life. The 
great object of the minutely-elaborate directions which were 
given through Moses to the Israelites was evidently to keep 
continually before their eyes the great truth that they owed all 
to God, and that their costKest offerings were but acknowledg- 
ments of their dependence. 

We will now presume that the Tachash of the Pentateuch and 
Ezekiel is really the animal which we know by the name oi 
Badger. It exists throughout the whole of the district traversed 
by the Israelites, though it is not very plentiful, nor is it easily 
taken. Had such been the case, its fur would not have been 
employed in the service of the sanctuary. 

It is nocturnal in its habits, and very seldom is seen during 
the hours of daylight, so that it cannot be captured by chase. It 
is not gTegarious, so that it cannot be taken in great numbers, as 
is the case with certain wild animals which have been thought 
to be the Tachash of Scripture. It is not a careless animal, so 
that it cannot be captured or killed without the exercise of con- 
siderable ingenuity, and the expenditure of much time and 
trouble. It is one of the burrowing animals, digging for itself 
a deep subterranean home, and always ready whenever it is 



102 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

alarmed to escape into the dark recesses of its dwelling, from 
which it can scarcely be dislodged. It is not a large animal, so 
that a considerable number of skins would be required in order 
to make a covering which should overlap a structuj-e forty-five 
feet in length and fifteen in breadth. Were it a solitary animal, 
there might be a difficulty in procuring a sufficient number of 
skins. But it is partly gregarious in its habits, living together 
in small families, seven or eight being sometimes found to inhabit 
a single dwelling-place. It is, therefore, sufficiently rare to make 
its skin valuable, and sufficiently plentiful to furnish the requisite 
number of skins. All these facts tend to show that the cost of 
such a covering must have been very great, even though it was 
the outermost, and, consequently, the least valuable of the four. 
It has been suggested that these skins were only used to lay over 
the lines where the different sets of coverings overlapped each 
other, and that, in consequence, they need not have been very 
numerous. 

But we find that these same skins, which were evidently those 
which formed the external roof, were used, when the Tabernacle 
was taken down, for the purpose of forming distinct coverings 
for the ark of the testimony, the table of shewbread, the seven- 
branched candlestick, the golden altar, the various vessels used in 
the ministrations, and lastly, the altar of sacrifice itself Thus, 
when we recollect the dimensions of the ark, the table, the candle- 
stick, and the two altars, we shall see that, in order to make 
separate covers for them, a quantity of material would be used 
which would be amply sufficient to cover the whole roof of the 
Tabernacle, even if it had, as was most probably the case, a ridged, 
and not a flat roof. 

We now come to our next point, namely, the aptitude of the 
Badger's skin to resist weather. Any one who has handled the 
skin of the Badger will acknowledge that a better material could 
hardly be found. The fur is long, thick, and, though ligh*, is 
moderately stiff, the hairs falling over each other in such a 
manner as to throw off rain or snow as off a penthouse. And, 
as to the third point, namely, its possible use as a material for the 
manufacture of shoes, we may call to mind that the skin of the 
Badger is proverbially tough, and that this very quality has 
caused the animal to be subjected to most cruel treatment by a 
class of sporting men which is now almost extinct. 



THE BEAR. 103 

The Septuagint gives little assistance in determining the precise 
nature of the Tachasli, and rather seems to consider the word as 
expressive of the colour with which the fur was dyed than that of 
the animal from which it was taken. Still, it must be remem- 
bered that not only are zoological terms used very loosely in the 
Scriptures, but that in Hebrew, as in all otlier languages, the 
same combination of letters often expresses two different ideas, 
so that the word Tachash may equally signify a colour and an 
animal. Moreover, it has been well pointed out that the repeated 
use of the word in the plural immber shows that it cannot 
refer to colour; while its almost invariable combination with 
the Hebrew word that signifies a skin implies that it does not 
refer to colour, but to an animal. 

What that animal may be, is, as I have already mentioned, 
conjectural. But, as the authorized translation renders the word 
as Badger, and as this reading fulfils the conditions necessary to 
its identification, and as no other reading does fulfil them, we 
cannot be very far wrong if we accept that translation as the 
correct one, and assume the Tachash of the Scriptures to be fhe 
animal which we call by the name of Badger. 



THE BEAK. 

The Syrian Bear — Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles — Its colour varia>>le 
according to age — Bears once numerous in Palestine, and now only occasionally 
seen — Reason for their diminution — Present localities of the Bear, and its 
favourite haunts — Food of the Bear — Its general habits- Its ravages among 
the flocks — The Bear dangerous to mankind — The Bear robbed of her whelps 
— Illustrative passages— Its mode of fighting— Various references to the Bear, 
from the time of Samuel to that of St. John. 

Whatever doubt may exist as to the precise identity of 
various animals mentioned in the Scriptures, there is none what- 
ever as to the creature which is frequently alluded to under the 
name of Bear. 



104 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The Hebrew word is DSh, and it is a remarkable fact that the 

name of this animal in the Arabic language is almost identical 
with the Hebrew term, namely, Buhh. The peculiar species of 
Bear which inhabits Palestine is the Syrian Bear {Ursus 
Isabellinus), and, though it has been variously described by 
different eye-witnesses, there is no doubt that the same species 
was seen by them all. As is the case with many animals, the 
Syrian Bear changes its colour as it grows older. When a cub, it is 
of a darkish brown, which becomes a light brown as it approaches 
maturity. But, when it has attained its full growth, it becomes 
cream-coloured, and each succeeding year seems to lighten its 
coat, so that a very old Bear is nearly as white as its relative of 
the Arctic regions. Travellers, therefore, who have met the 
younger specimens, have described them as brown in hue, while 
those who have seen more aged individuals have stated that 
the colour of the Syrian Bear is white. 

Owing to the destruction of forests, the Bear, which is essentially 
a lover of the woods, has decreased considerably in number. Yet, 
even at the present time, specimens may be seen by the watchful 
traveller, mostly about the range of Lebanon, but sometimes at 
a considerable distance from that locality. Mr. Tristram, for 
example, saw it close to the Lake of Gennesaret. " We never 
met with so many wild animals as on one of those days. Ekst 
of all, a wild boar got out of some scrub close to us, as we were 
ascending the valley. Then a deer was started below, ran up 
the cliff, and wound along the ledge, passing close to us. Then 
a large ichneumon almost crossed my feet and ran into a cleft ; 
and, while endeavouring to trace him, I was amazed to see a 
brown Syrian Bear clumsily but rapidly clamber down the 
rocks and cross the ravine. He was, however, far too cautious 
to get within hailing distance of any of the riflemen." 

The same author mentions that some of the chief strongholds 
of this Bear are certain clefts in the face of a precipitous chasm 
through which the river Leontes flows. This river runs into the 
sea a few miles northward of Tyre, and assists in carrying off the 
melted snows from the Lebanon range of mountains. His 
description is so picturesque, that it must be given in his own 
words. " The channel, though a thousand feet deep, was so 
narr-ow that the opposite ridge was within gunshot. Looking 
dov/n the giddy abyss, we could see the cliff on our side parcially 




BEARS DESCENDING THE MOl NTAIN? 



106 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

covered with myrtle, bay, and caper hanging from the fissures, 
while the opposite side was perforated with many shallow caves, 
the inaccessible eyries of vultures, eagles, and lanner falcons, which 
were sailing in multitudes around. The lower part had many 
ledges clad with shrubs, the strongholds of the Syrian Bear, 
though inaccessible even to goats. Far beneath dashed the 
milk-white river, a silver line in a ruby setting of oleanders, 
roaring doubtless fiercely, but too distant to be heard at the 
height on which we stood. This cleft of the Leontes was the only 
true Alpine scenery we had met with in Palestine, and in any 
country, and amidst any mountains, it would attract admi- 
ration." 

On those elevated spots the Bear loves to dwell, and throughout 
the summer-time generally remains in such localities. For the 
Bear is one of the omnivorous animals, and is able to feed on 
vegetable as well as animal substances, preferring the former 
when they can be found. There is nothing that a Bear likes better 
than strawberries and similar fruits, among which it will revel 
throughout the whole fruit season, daintily picking the ripest 
berries, and becoming wonderfully fat by the constant banquet. 
Sometimes, when the fruits fail, it makes incursions among the 
cultivated grounds, and is noted for the ravasjes which it makes 
among a sort of vetch which is much grown in the Holy Land. 

But during the colder months of the year the Bear changes 
its diet, and becomes carnivorous. Sometimes it contents itself 
with the various wdld animals which it can secure, but some- 
times it descends to the lower plains, and seizes upon the goats 
and sheep in their pastures. This habit is referred to by David, 
in his well-known speech to Saul, when the king was trying to 
dissuade him from matching himself against the gigantic 
Philistine. " And Saul said to David, Thou art not able to go 
against this Philistine to fight with him : for thou art but a 

youth, and he a man of war from his youth Thy servant 

kept his father's sheep, and there came a lion and a bear, and 
took a lamb out of the flock : and I went out after him, and 
smote him, and delivered it out of his hand ; and when he arose 
against me, I caught him by the beard, and smote him, and slew 
him. Thy servant slew both the lion and the bear : and this 
uncircumcised Philistine shall be as one of them, seeing he hath 
defied the armies of the liviug God." — 1 Sam. xvii. 33 — 36. 



THE BEAR. 



107 




IB^^^^^ '^'''^iMl^'^m^^^m^^ 



108 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Though not generally apt to attack mankind, it will do so if 
first attacked, and then becomes a most dangerous enemy. See, 
for example, that most graphic passage in the book of the 
prophet Amos, whose business as a herdsman must have made 
him conversant with the habits, not only of the flocks aud herds 
which he kept, but of the wild beasts which might devour 
them: — "Woe unto you that desire the day of the Lord! to 
what end is it for you ? the day of the Lord is darkness, and 
not light. As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met 
him ; or went into a house, and leaned his hand on the wall, 
and a serpent bit him." (v. 19.) 

Another reference to the dangerous character of the Bear is 
made in 2 Kings ii. 28, 24, in which is recorded that two she- 
bears came out of the wood near Bethel, and killed forty-two of 
the children that mocked at Elisha. 

As the Bear is not swift of foot, but rather clumsy in its 
movements, it cannot hope to take the nimbler aDimals in open 
chase. It prefers to lie in wait for them in the bushes, and to 
strike them down with a sudden blow of its paw, a terrible 
weapon, which it can wield as effectively as the lion uses its 
claws. An allusion to this habit is made in the Lamentations 
of Jeremiah (iii. 10), *•' He was unto me as a bear lying in v^ait, 
and as a lion in secret places." 

Harmless to man as it generally is, there are occasions on 
which, it becomes a terrible and relentless foe, not seeking to 
avoid his presence, but even searching for him, and attacking 
him as soon as seen. In the proper season of the year, hunters, 
or those who are travelling through those parts of the country 
infested by the Bear, will sometimes find the cubs, generally 
two in number, thek mother having left them in the den while 
she has gone to search for food. Although they would not 
venture to take the initiative in an attack upon either of the 
parents, they are glad of an opportunity which enables them to 
destroy one or two Bears without danger to themselves. The 
young Bears are easily killed or carried off, because at a very 
early age they are as confident as they are weak, and do not try 
to escape when they see the hunters approaching. 

The only danger lies in the possibility that their deed may 
be discovered by the mother before they can escape from the 
locality, and, if she should happen to return while the robbers 



THE BEAR. 



109 




^riiiilliil!:!^ 



110 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

are still in the neighbourhood, a severe conflict is sure to follow. 
At any time an angry Bear is a terrible antagonist, especially if 
it be wounded with sufficient severity to cause pain, and not 
severely enough to cripple its movements. But, when to this 
easily-roused ferocity is added the fury of maternal feelings, it 
may be imagined that the hunters have good reason to fear its 
attack. 

To aU animals that rear their young is given a sublime and 
almost supernatural courage in defending their offspring, and 
from the lioness, that charges a host of armed men when her 
cubs are in danger, to the hen, which defies the soaring kite or 
prowling fox, or to the spider, that will give up her life rathei 
than abandon her yet unhatched brood, the same self-sacrificing 
spirit actuates them all Most terrible therefore is the wrath 
of a creature which possesses, as is the case of the Bear, the 
strongest maternal affections, added to great size, tremendous 
weapons, and gigantic strength. That the sight of a Bear 
bereaved of her young was well known to both writers and 
contemporary readers of the Old Testament, is evident from 
the fact that it is mentioned by several writers, and always 
as a familiar illustration of furious anger. See for example 
2 Sam. xvii. 8, when Hushai is dissuading Absalom from fol- 
lowing the cautious counsel of Ahithophel, " For thou knowest 
thy father and his men, that they be mighty men of war, and 
they be chafed in their minds as a bear robbed of her whelps 
in the field." Solomon also, in the Proverbs (xvii. 12), uses 
the same image, "Let a bear robbed of her whelps meet a man, 
rather than a fool in his folly." 

When the Bear fights, it delivers rapid strokes with its armed 
paw, tearing and rending away everything that it strikes. A 
blow from a bear's paw has been several times known to strip 
the entire skin, together with the hair, from a man's head, and, 
\\-hen fighting with dogs, to tear its enemies open as if each 
claw were a chisel. 

Bears^ are capable of erecting themselves ou their hinder limbs, 
and of supporting themselves in an upright position with the great- 
est ease. When attacked in close combat, they have a habit of 
rearing themselves upon their hinder feet — a position which enables 
them to deliver with the greatest effect the terrific blows with their 
fore paws, upon which they chiefly rely in defending themselves. 



THE BEAR. 



11 



With fearful ingenuity, the Bear, when engaged with a human 
foe, directs its attack upon the head of its antagonist, and, as pre- 
viously stated, has been known to strike off the entire scalp with 



a single blow, 




A FAMILY-PARTV. 



A hunter who had the misfortune to be struck down by a Bear — 
and the singular good fortune to afterwards escape from it — says, 
that when he was lying on the ground at the mercy of the angry 



112 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



beast, the animal, after biting him upon the arms and legs, delib- 
erately settled itself upon his head and began to scarify it in the 
fiercest manner, leaving wounds eight and nine inches in length. 

Bears are the more terrible antagonists from their extreme 
tenacity of life, and the fearful energy which they compress 
into the last moment of existence, when they are suffering from a 
mortal wound. Unless struck in the heart or brain, the mortally- 
wounded Bear is more to be feared than if it had received no 
injury whatever, and contrives to wreak more harm in the few 
minutes that immediately precede its death, than it had achieved 
while still uninjured. 

Many a hunter has received mortal hurts by incautiously ap- 
proaching a Bear, which lay apparently dead, but was in reality 
onlv stunned. 





THE PORCUPINE. 



Presumed identity of the Kippod with the Porcupine — Habits of the Porcupine — 
the common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestino 

» 

Although, like the hedgehog, the Porcupine is not mentioned 
by name in the Scriptures, many commentators think that the 
word Kipp6d signifies both the hedgehog and Porcupine. 

That the two animals should be thought to be merely two 
varieties of one species is not astonishing, when we remember 
the character of the people among whom the Porcupine lives- 
Not having the least idea of scientific geology, they look only to 
the most conspicuous characteristics, and because the Porcupine 
and hedgehog are both covered with an armature of quills, and 
the quills are far more conspicuous than the teeth, the inhabi- 
tants of Palestine naturally class the two animals together. In 
reality, they belong to two very different orders, the hedgehog 
being classed with the shrew-mice and moles, while the Porcu- 
pine is a rodent animal, and is classed with the rats, rabbits, 
beavers, marmots, and other rodents. 

It is quite as common in Palestine as the hedgehog, a fact 
which increases the probability that the two animals may have 
been mentioned under a common title. Being a nocturnal 
animal, it retires during the day-time to some crevice in a rock or 
burrow in the ground, and there lies s:leeping until the sunset 

113 



114 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

awakens it and calls it to action. And as the hedgehog is alsc 
a nocturnal animal, the similarity of habit serves to strengthen 
the mutual resemblance. 

The Porcupine is peculiarly fitted for living in dry and un- 
watered spots, as, like many other animals, of which oui- 
common rabbit is a familiar example, it can exist without 
water, obtaining the needful moisture from the succulent roots 
on which it feeds. 

The sharply pointed quills with which its body is covered are 
solid, and strengthened in a most beautiful manner by internal 
ribs, that run longitudinally through them, exactly like those 
of the hollow iron masts, which are now coming so much into 
use. As they are, in fact, greatly developed hairs, they are con- 
tinually shed and replaced, and when they are about to fall are 
so loosely attached that they fall off if pulled slightly, or even if 
the animal shakes itself. Consequently the shed quills that lie 
about the localities inhabited by the Porcupine indicate its 
whereabouts, and so plentiful are these quills in some places, 
that quite a bundle can be collected in a short time. 

There are many species of Porcupines which inhabit different 
parts of the world, but that which has been mentioned is the 
common Porcupine of Europe, Asia, and Africa. 



THE MOLE. 

The two Hebrew words whicli are translated as Mole — Obscurity of the former 
name — A parallel case in our own language — The second name- The Moles 
and the Bats, why associated together — The real Mole of Scripture, its different 
names, and its place in zoology — Description of the Mole-rat and its general 
habits — Curious superstition — Discovery of the species by Mr. Tnstram — 
Scripture and science — How the Mole-rat finds its food — Distinction between 
the Mole and the present animal. 

There are two words which are translated as Mole in our 
authorized version of the Bible. One of them i-s so obscure that 
there seems no possibility of deciding the creature that is repre- 
sented by it. We cannot even tell to what class of the anima) 



THE MOLE. 



115 



kingdom it refers, because in more than one place it is mentioned 
as one of the unclean birds that might not be eaten (translated 
as swan in our version), whereas, in another place, it is enume- 
rated among the unclean creeping things. 

We may conjecture that the same word might be used to 
designate two distinct animals, though we have no clue to theii 
identification. It is rather a strange coincidence, in corroboration 
of this theory, that our word Mole signifies three distinct ob- 
jects — firstly, an animal ; secondly, a cutaneous growth ; and 
thirdly, a bank of earth. Now, supposing English to be a dead 




THE MOLE-RAT. 



language, like the Hebrew, it may well be imagined that a trans- 
lator of an English book would feel extremely perplexed when 
he saw the word Mole used in such widely different senses. 

The best Hebraists can do no more than offer a conjecture 
founded on the structure of the word Tinshemeth, which is 
thought by some to be the chameleon. Some think that it 
'.6 the Mole, some the ibis, some the salamander, while others 



116 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

consider it to be the centipede ; and in neither case have any 
decisiye arguments been adduced. 

We will therefore leave the former of these two names, and 
proceed to the second, Ghephor-peroth. 

This word occurs in that passage of Isaiah which has already 
been quoted when treating of the bat. " In that day a man shall 
cast his idols of silver and his idols of gold, which they made 
each one to himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats ; to 
go into the clefts of the rocks and into the tops of the ragged 
rocks, for fear of the Lord and for the glory of his majesty, when 
he ariseth to shake terribly the earth." 

It is highly probable that the animal in question is the Mole 
of Palestine, which is not the same as our European species, but 
is much larger in size, and belongs to a different order of mam- 
malia. The true Mole is one of the insectivorous and carnivorous 
animals, and is allied to the shrews and the hedgehogs ; whereas 
the Mole of Palestine {Sjpalax typhlus) is one of the rodents, 
and allied to the rabbits, mice, marmots, and jerboas. A better 
term for it is the Mole-rat, by which name it is familiar to 
zoologists. It is also known by the names of Slepez and 
Nenni. 

In length it is about eight inches, and its colour is a pale slate. 
As is the case with the true Moles, the eyes are of very minute 
dimensions, and are not visible through the thick soft fur with 
which the whole head and body are covered. Neither are there 
any visible external ears, although the ear is really very large, 
and extremely sensitive to sound. This apparent privation of 
both ears and eyes gives to the animal a most singular and 
featureless appearance, its head being hardly recognisable as such 
but for the mouth, and the enormous projecting teeth, which not 
only look formidable, but really are so. There is a curious 
superstition in the Ukraine, that if a man will dare to grasp a 
Mole-rat in his bare hand, allow it to bite him, and then squeeze 
it to death, the hand that did the deed will ever afterwards 
possess the virtue of healing goitre or scrofula. 

This animal is spread over a very large tract of country, and 
is very common in Palestine. Mr. Tristram gives an interesting 
account of its discovery. " We had long tried in vain to capture 
the Mole of Palestine. Its mines and its mounds we had seen 
everywhere, and reproached ourselves with having omitted the 



THE MOLE. 117 

niole-trap among the items of our outfit. From the size of the 
moimds and the shallowness of the subterranean passages, we 
felt satisfied it could not be the European species, and our hopes 
of solving the question were raised when we found that one of 
them had taken up its quarters close to our camp. After several 
vain attempts to trap it, an Arab one night brought a live Mole 
in a jar to the tent. It was no Mole properly so called, but the 
Mole-rat, which takes its place throughout Western Asia. The 
man, having observed our anxiety to possess a specimen, refused 
to part with it for less than a hundred piastres, and scornfully 
rejected the twenty piastres I offered. Ultimately, Dr. Chaplin 
purchased it for five piastres after our departure, and I kept it 
alive for some time in a box, feeding it on sliced onions." 

The same gentleman afterwards caught many of the Mole-rats, 
and kept them in earthen vessels, as they soon gnawed their 
way through wood. They fed chiefly on bulbs, but also ate 
sopped bread. Like many other animals, they reposed during 
the day, and were active throughout the night. 

The author then proceeds to remark on the peculiarly appro- 
priate character of the prophecy that the idols should be cast 
to the Moles and the bats. Had the European Mole been the 
animal to which reference was made, there would have been 
comparatively little significance in the connexion of the two 
names, because, although both animals are lovers of darkness, 
they do not inhabit similar localities. But the Mole-rat is fond 
of frequenting deserted ruins and burial-places, so that the 
Moles and the bats are really companions, and as such are asso- 
ciated together in the sacred narrative. Here, as in many other 
instances, we find that closer study of the Scriptures united to 
more extended knowledge are by no means the enemies of 
religion, as some well-meaning, but narrow-minded persons 
think. On tlie contrary, the Scriptures were never so well 
understood, and their truth and force so well recognised, as at 
the present day ; and science has proved to be, not the destroyer 
of the Bible, but its interpreter. We shall soon cease to hear of 
" Science versus the Bible," and shall substitute " Science and 
the Bible versus Ignorance and Prejudice." 

The Mole-rat needs not to dig such deep tunnels as the true 
Moles, because its food does not lie so deep. The Moles live 
chiefly upon earthworms, and are obliged to procure them in the 



118 STORY OF THE BIBLE AKIMALS. 

varying depths to which they burrow, B it the Mole-rat Uvea 
mostly upon roots, preferring those of a bulbous nature. Now 
bulbous roots are, as a rule, situated near the surface of the 
ground, and, therefore, any animal which feeds upon them 
must be careful not to burrow too deeply, lest it should pass 
beneath them. The shallowness of the burrows is thus accounted 
foi Gardens are often damaged by this animal, the root-crops, 
such as carrots and onions, affording plenty of food without 
needing much exertion. 

The Mole-rat does not keep itself quite so jealously secluded as 
does our common Mole, but occasionally will come out of the 
burrow and lie on the ground, enjoying the warm sunshine. Still 
it is not easily to be approached ; for though its eyes are almost 
useless, the ears are so sharp, and the animal is so wary, that at 
the sound of a footstep it instantly seeks the protection of its 
burrow, where it may bid defiance to its foes. 

How it obtains its food is a mystery. There seems to be 
absolutely no method of guiding itself to the precise spot where 
a bulb may be growing. It is not difficult to conjecture the 
method by which the Mole discovers its prey. Its sensitive ears 
may direct it to the spot where a worm is driving its way 
through the earth, and should it come upon its prey, the very 
touch of the worm, writhing in terror at the approach of its 
enemy, would be sufficient to act as a guide. I have kept 
several Moles, and always noticed that, though they would pass 
close to a worm without seeming to detect its presence, either 
by sight or scent, at the slightest touch they would spring 
round, dart on the worm, and in a moment seize it between their 
jaws. But with the Mole-rat the case is different. The root can 
utter no sound, and can make no movement, nor is it likely that 
the odour of the bulb should penetrate through the earth to a 
very great distance. 







Ihp^ 


->-«^ --^tm^iai^aK/jM^n 


yS/^ , ' . '^ . %aggKI 




^^^'_^^^^S 


■■^ ^•••. '"^ : w.rfs«»fv^^^ .=i-^ 


TS - 


^^^^^^^^^^h 


^^^^-'^^'ISi^^^B 


^^Ssap^. ---=,= — ^ 



THE MOUSE. 

The Mice which marred the land — The Field-mouse — Its destructive habits and 
prolific nature — The Hamster, and its habits — The Jerboa, its activity and de- 
structiveness — Various species of Dormice and Sand-rats. 

That the Mouse mentioned in the Old Testament was some 
species of rodent animal is tolerably clear, though it is impos- 
sible to state any particular species as being signified by the 
Hebrew word Akhar. The probable derivation of this name is 
from two words which signify " destruction of corn," and it is 
therefore evident that allusion is made to some animal which 
devours the produce of the fields, and which exists in sufficient 
numbers to make its voracity formidable. 

Some commentators on the Old Testament translate the 
word Akbar as jerboa. Now, although the jerboa is common in 
Syria, it is not nearly so plentiful as other rodent animals, and 
would scarcely be selected as the means by which a terrible 
disaster is made to befall a whole country. The student of 
Scripture is well aware that, in those exceptional occurrences 
which are called miracles, a needless development of the 
wonder-working power is never employed. We are not to sup- 
pose, for example, that the clouds of locusts that devoured the 
harvests of the Egyptians were created for this express purpose, 
but that their already existing hosts were concentrated upon a 
limited area, instead of being spread over a large surface. Nor 
need w^e fancy that the frogs which rendered their habitations 
unclean, and contaminated their food, were brought into exist- 
ence simply to inflict a severe punishment on the fastidious and 
superstitious Egyptians. 

119 



120 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



Of course, had such an exercise of creative power been needed, 
it would have been used, but we can all see that a needless 
miracle is never worked. He who would not suffer even a 
crumb of the miraculously multiplied bread to be wasted, is not 
likely to waste that power by which the miracle was wrought. 




BEFORE THE AKK. 



If we refer to the early history of the Israelitish nation, as 
told in 1 Sam. iv. — vi., we shall find that the Israelites made an 
unwarrantable use of the ark, by taking it into battle, and that it 
was captured and carried off into the country of the Philistines. 
Then various signs were sent to warn the captors to send the ark 
back to its rightful possessors. Dagon, their great god, was pros- 
trated before it, painful diseases attacked them, so that many 
died, and scarcely any seem to have escaped, while their harvests 
were ravaged by numbers of " mice that marred the land." 



THE MOUSE. 



121 



The question is now simple enough. If the ordinary transla- 
tion is accepted, and the word Akbar rendered as Mouse, would 
the necessary conditions be fulfilled, i.e. would the creature be 




MOUSE AND NKST. 



destructive, and would it exist in very great numbers ? Now we 
shall find that both these conditions are fulfilled by the common 
Field-mouse. 
6 



122 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



This little creature is, in proportion to its size, one of the most 
destructive animals in the world. Let its numbers be increased 
from any cause whatever, and it will most effectually "mar 
the land." It will devour every cereal that is sown, and kill 
almost any sapling that is planted. It does not even wait for 
the corn to spring up, but will burrow beneath the surface, and 
dig out the seed before it has had time to sprout. In the early 
part of the year, it will eat the green blade as soon as it springs 
out of the ground, and is an adept at climbing the stalks of corn, 
and plundering the ripe ears in the autumn. 




JEKBOA, OR LEAPING MOUSE. 



When stacked or laid up in barns, the harvest is by no means 
safe, for the Mice will penetrate into any ordinary barn, and find 
their way into any carelessly-built stack, from which they can 
scarcely be ejected. The rat itself is not so dire a foe to the 
farmer, as the less obtrusive, but equally mischievous Field- 
mouse. The ferret will drive the rats out of their holes, and if 
they have taken possesion of a wheat-stack they can be ejected 
by depriving them of access to water. But the burrows of the 
Field-mouse are so small that a ferret cannot make its way 



THE MOUSE. 



123 



through them, and the nightly dew that falls on the stack affords 
an ample supply of water. 

When the Field-mouse is deprived of the food which it loves 
best, it finds a subsistence among the trees. Whenever mice can 
discover a newl^-planted sapling, they hold great revel upon it, 
eating away the tender young bark as high as they can reach, 
and consequently destroying the tree as effectually as if it were 




THE FIELD-MOUSE. 



cut down. Even when the young trees f^il them, and no tender 
bark is to be had, the Field-mice can still exert their destructive 
powers. They will then betake themselves to the earth, burrow 
beneath its surface, and devour the young rootlets of the forest 
trees. All botanists know that a healthy tree is continually 
pushing forward fresh roots below the ground, in order to gain 
sufficient nourishment to supply the increasing growth above. 
If, therefore, these young roots are destroyed, the least harm 



124 STORY OF THE BIBLE AXIMALS. 

that can happen to the tree is that its further growth is arrested ; 
while, in many cases, the tree, which cannot repair the injuries 
it has received, droops gradually, and finally dies. Even in this 
country, the Field-mouse has proved itseK a terrible enemy to 
the agriculturist, and has devastated considerable tracts of land. 

So much for the destructive powers of the Field-mouse, and 
the next point to be considered is its abundance. 

Nearly all the rats and mice are singularly prolific animals, 
producing a considerable number at a brood, and having several 
broods in a season. The Field-mouse is by no means an excep- 
tion to the general rule, bnt produces as many young in a season 
as any of the Mice. 

Not only is it formidable from its numbers, but from the in- 
sidious nature of its attacks. Any one can see a rabbit, a hare, 
or even a rat ; but to see a Field-mouse is not easy, even when the 
Kttle creatures are present in thousands. A Field-mouse never 
shows itself except from necessit}^, its instinct teaching it to 
escape the observation of its many furred and feathered enemies. 
Short-legged and soft-furred, it threads its noiseless way among 
the herbage with such gentle suppleness that scarcely a grass- 
blade is stirred, while, if it should be forced to pass over a spot 
of bare ground, the red-brown hue of its fur prevents it from 
being detected by an inexperienced eye. Generally the Field- 
mouse is safe from human foes, and has only to dread the 
piercing eye and swift wings of the hawk, or the silent flight 
and sharp talons of the owL 

Although there can be no doubt that the Field-mouse is one 
of the animals to which the name of Akbar is given, it is pro- 
bable that many species were grouped under this one name. 
Small rodents of various kinds are very plentiful in Palestine, 
and there are several species closely allied to the Field-mouse 
itself. 

Among them is the Hamster (Gricetus frv/nwnJtarius), so 
widely known for the ravages which it makes among the crops. 
This terribly destructive animal not only steals the crops for 
immediate subsistence, but lays up a large stock of provisions 
for the winter, seeming to be actuated by a sort of miserly 
passion for collecting and storing away. There seems to be no 
bounds to the quantity of food which a Hamster will carry 
into its subterranean store-house, from seventy to one h'mdred 



THE MOUSE. 126 

pounds* weight being sometimes taken out of the burrow of a 
single animal. The fact of the existence of these large stores 
shows that the animal must need them, and accordingly we find 
that the Hamster is only a partial hibernator, as it is awake 
during a considerable portion of the winter months, and is con- 
sequently obliged to live on the stores which it has collected. 

It is an exceedingly prolific animal, each pair producing on an 
average twenty-five young in the course of a year. The families 
are unsociable, and, as soon as they are strong enough to feed 
themselves, the young Hamsters leave their home, and make 
separate burrows for themselves. Thus we see that the Hamster, 
as well as the Field-mouse, fulfils the conditions which are 
needed in order to class it under the general title of Akbar. 

I have already stated that some translators of the Bible use 
the word Jerboa as a rendering of the Hebrew Akbar. As the 
Jerboa certainly is found in Palestine, there is some foundation 
for this idea, and we may safely conjecture that it also is one of 
the smaller rodents which are grouped together under the appel- 
lation of Mouse. 

The Common Jerboa {Dipus jEgyptiams) is plentiful in Pales- 
tine, and several other species inhabit the same country, known 
at once by their long and slender legs, which give them so 
curious a resemblance to the kangaroos of Australia. The Jerboas 
pass over the ground with astonishing rapidity. Instead of 
creeping stealthily among the grass-blades, like the short-limbed 
field-mouse, the Jerboa flies along with a succession of wonderful 
leaps, darting here and there with such rapidity that the eye can 
scarcely follow its wayward movements. When quiet and undis- 
turbed, it hops along gently enough, but as soon as it takes 
alarm, it darts off in its peculiar manner, which is to the ordi- 
nary walk of quadrupeds what the devious course of a frightened 
snipe is to the steady flight of birds in general. 

It prefers hot and dry situations, its feet being defended by a 
thick coating of stiff hairs, which serve the double purpose of 
protecting it from the heat, and giving it a firm hold on the 
ground. It is rather a destructive animal, its sharp and powerful 
teeth enabling it to bite its way through obstacles which would 
effectually stop an ordinary Mouse. That the Jerboa may be 
one of the Akbarim is rendered likely by the prohibition in 
Lev. xi. 29, forbidding the Mouse to be eaten. It would be 



126 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

scarcely probable that such a command need have been issued 
against eating the common Mouse, whereas the Jerboa, a much 
larger and palatable animal, is always eaten by the Arabs. The 
Hamster is at the present day eaten in Northern Syria. 

Beside these creatures there are the Dormice, several species 
of which animal inhabit Palestine at the present day. There are 
also the Sand-rats, one species of which is larger than our ordi- 
nary rats. The Sand-rats live more in the deserts than the 
cultivated lands, making their burrows at the foot of hUls, and 
among the roots of bushes. 



THE HARE. 



T^e prohibitions of the Mosaic law — The chewing of the cud, and division of the 
hoof — Identity of the Hare of Scripture — Rumination described — The Hare 
a rodjsnt and not a ruminant — Cowper and his Hares — Structure of the rodent 
tooth — The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients — The Hares of Palestine 
and their habits. 



Among the many provisions of the Mosaic law are several which 
refer to the diet of the Israelites, and which prohibit certain 
kinds of food. Special stress is laid upon the flesh of animals, 
and the list of those which may be lawfully eaten is a singularly 
restricted one, all being excluded except those which " divide the 
hoof and chew the cud." And, lest there should be any mistake 
about the matter, examples are given both of those animals 
which may and those which may not be eaten. 

The ox, sheep, goat, and antelopes generally are permitted as 
lawful food, because they fulfil both conditions ; whereas there is 
a special prohibition of the swine, because it divides the hoof 
but does not chew the cud, and of the camel, coney, and hare 
because they chew the cud, but do not divide the hoof. Our 
business at present is with the last of these animals. 

Considerable discussion has been raised concerning this 
animal, because, as is well known to naturalists, the Hare is not 



THE HARE. 



127 



one of the ruminant animals, but belongs to the same order as 
the rat, rabbit, beaver, and other rodents. Neither its teeth nor 
its stomach are constructed for the purpose of enabling it to 
ruminate, i.e. to return into the- mouth the partially-digested 
food, and then to masticate it afresh ; and therefore it has been 
thought that either there is some mistake in the sacred narrative^ 
03r that the Hebrew word has been mistranslated. 




Tlln: SYKiAN llAKI.. 



Taking the latter point first, as being the simplest of the two, 
we find that the Hebrew word which is rendered as Hare is 
Arnebeth, and that it is rendered in the Septuagint as Dasypus, 
or the Hare, — a rendering which the Jewish Bible adopts. 
That the Arnebeth is really the Hare may also be conjectured 
from the fact that the Arabic name for that animal is Arneb. 
In consequence of the rather wide sense to which the Greek 
word Dasypus (i.e. hairy-foot) is used, some commentators have 
suggested that the rabbit may have been included in the same 
title. This, hovever, is not at all likely, inasmuch as the Hare 



128 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

is very plentiful in Palestine, and the rabbit is believed not to 
be indigenous to that part of the world. And, even if the two 
animals had been classed under the same title, the physiological 
difficulty would not be removed. 

Before proceeding further, it will be as well to give a brief 
description of the curious act called rumination, or "chewing 
the cud." 

There are certain animals, such as the oxen, antelopes, deer, 
sheep, goats, camels, &c. which have teeth unfitted for the rapid 
mastication of food, and which therefore are supplied with a 
remarkable apparatus by which the food can be returned into 
the mouth when the animal has leisure, and be re-masticated 
before it passes into the true digestive organs. 

For this purpose they are furnished with four stomachs, which 
are arranged in the following order. First comes the paunch or 
" rumen " (whence the word " ruminating "), into which passes the 
food in a very rough state, just as it is torn, rather than bitten, 
from the herbage, and which is analogous to the crop in birds. It 
thence passes into the second stomach, or "honeycomb," the 
walls of which are covered with small angular cells. Into those 
cells the food is received from the first stomach, and compressed 
into little balls, which can be voluntarily returned into the 
mouth for mastication. 

After the second mastication has been completed, the food 
passes at once into the third stomach, and thence into the fourth, 
which is the true digesting cavity. By a pecuUar structure of 
these organs, the animal is able to convey its food either into 
the first or third stomach, at will, i.e. into the first when the grass 
is eaten, and into the third after rumination. Thus it will be seen 
that an animal which chews the cud must have teeth of a certain 
character, and be possessed of the fourfold stomach which has 
just been described. 

Two points are conceded which seem to be utterly irrecon- 
cilable with each other. The first is that the Mosaic law 
distinctly states that the Hare chews the cud; the second is. 
that in point of fact the Hare is not, and cannot be, a rumi- 
nating animal, possessing neither the teeth nor the digestive 
organs which are indispensable for that process. Yet, totally 
opposed as these statements appear to be, they are in fact, not so 
irreconcilable as they seem. 



THE HARE. 



129 




A TIMID OROUP, 



6* 



130 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Why the flesh of certain animals was prohibited, we do not at 
the present time know. That the flesh of swine should be for- 
bidden food is likely enough, considering the effects which the 
habitual eating of swine's flesh is said to produce in hot countries. 
But it does seem very strange that the Israelites should have 
been forbidden to eat the flesh of the camel, the coney (or hyrax), 
and the Hare, and that these animals should have been specified 
is a proof that the eating or refraining from their flesh was not 
a mere sanitar}^ regulation, but was a matter of importance. 
The flesh of all these three animals is quite as good and 
nutritious as that of the oxen, or goats, which are eaten in 
Palestine, and that of the Hare is far superior to them. There- 
fore, the people of Israel, who were always apt to take liberties 
with the restrictive laws, and were crafty enough to evade them 
on so many occasions, would have been likely to pronounce that 
the flesh of the Hare was lawful meat, because the animal chewed 
the cud, or appeared to do so, and they would discreetly have 
omitted the passage which alluded to the division of the hoof. 

To a non-scientific obser\'er the Hare really does appear to 
chew the cud. When it is reposing at its ease, it continually 
moves its jaws about as if eating something, an action which 
may readily be mistaken for true rumination. Even Cowper, 
the poet, who kept some hares for several years, and had them 
always before his eyes, was deceived by this mumbling move- 
ment of the jaws. Speaking of his favourite hare, " Puss," he 
proceeds as follows : " Finding him exceedingly tractable, I 
made it my custom to carry him always after breakfast into the 
garden, where he hid himseK generally under the leaves of a 
cucumber vine, sleeping, or chewing the cud, till evening." 

The real object of this continual grinding or mumbling move- 
ment is simple enough. The chisel-Kke incisor teeth of the 
rodent animals need to be rubbed against each other, in order to 
preser^'e their edge and shape, and if perchance such friction 
should be wanting to a tooth, as, for example, by the breaking of 
the opposite tooth, it becomes greatly elongated, and sometimes 
grows to such a length as to prevent the animal from eating. 
Instinctively, therefore, the Hare, as well as the rabbit and 
other rodents, always likes to be nibbling at something, as any one 
knows who has kept rabbits in wooden hutohes, the object of 



THE HARE. 131 

this nibbling not being to eat the wood, but to keep the teeth 
in order. 

But we may naturally ask ourselves, why the Mosaic law, an 
emanation from heaven, should mention an animal as being a 
ruminant, when its very structure shows that such an act was 
utterly imposible ? The answer is clear enough. The law waa 
suited to the capacity of those for whom it was intended, and 
was never meant to be a handbook of science, as well as a code 
of religious duties and maxims. The Jews, like other Orientals, 
were indifferent to that branch of knowledge which we designate 
by the name of physical science, and it was necessary that the 
language in which the law was conveyed to them should be 
accommodated to their capabilities of receiving it. 

It would have been worse than useless to have interrupted 
the solemn revelation of Divine will with a lesson in compara- 
tive anatomy; the object of the passage in question being, not to 
teach the Jews the distinctive characteristics of a rodent and a 
ruminant, but to guard against their mistaking the Hare for one 
of the ruminants which were permitted as food. That they 
would in all probability have fallen into that mistake is evident 
from the fact that the Arabs are exceedingly fond of the flesh of 
the Hare, and accept it, as well as the camel, as lawful food, 
because it chews the cud, the division of the hoof not being 
considered by them as an essential. 

Hares are very plentiful in Palestine, and at least two species 
are found in that country. One of them, which inhabits the 
more northern and hilly portion of Palestine, closely resembles 
our own species, but has not ears quite so long in proportion, 
while the head is broader. The second species, which lives in 
the south, and in the valley of the Jordan, is very small, is of a 
light dun colour, and has very long ears. In their general 
habits, these Hares resemble the Ilare of England. 



132 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



CATTLE. 

The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present day — Ox-flesh not used 
for food in modem times — Oxen of the stall, and oxen of the pasture — The use 
of the ox in agriculture — The yoke and its structure —The plough and the goad 
— The latter capable of being used as a weapon — Treading out the com — The 
cart and its wheels — The ox used as a beast of burden — Cattle turned loose to 
graze — The bulls of Bashan — Curiosity of the ox-tribe — A season of drought — 
Branding the cattle — An Egyptian field scene — Cattle-keeping an honourable 
post — The ox as used for sacrifice — Ox-worship — The bull Apis, and his history 
— Persistency of the bull-worship— Jeroboam's sin — Various names of cattle — 
The Indian bufi"alo. 

Under this head we shall treat of the domesticated oxen of 
Scripture, whether mentioned as Bull, Cow, Ox, Calf, Heifer, &c. 

Two distinct species of cattle are found in Palestine, namely, 
the ordinary domesticated ox, and the Indian buffalo, which 
lives in the low-lying and marshy valley of the Jordan. Of this 
species we shall treat presently. 

The domesticated cattle are very much like our own, but there 
is not among them that diversity of breed for which this country 
is famous; nor is there even any distinction of long and short 
horned cattle. There are some places where the animals are 
larger than in others, but this difference is occasioned simply by 
the better quality and greater quantity of the food. 

As is the case in most parts of the world where civilization 
has made any progress, Domesticated Cattle were, and still are, 
plentiful in Palestine. Even at the present time the cattle are 
in common use, though it is evident, from many passages of 
Holy Writ, that in the days of Judaea's prosperity cattle were far 
more numerous than they are now, and were treated in a better 
fashion. 

To take their most sacred use first, a constant supply of cattle 
was needed for the sacrifices, and, as it was necessary that every 
animal which was brought to the altar should be absolutely 
perfect, it is evident that great care v/as required in ordei 



CATTLE. 



133 



that the breed should not deteriorate, a skill which has long 
been rendered useless by the abandonment of the sacrifices. 




!^^_^_,^ ,„.ll!l!pilITI]r;H,^ ,,„^^ 



» ■'"""« 






l^llfll'lUMIiffiii 



Li^i iiLA-f'A 



AI.TAR OF BURNT-OFFKRINCi. 



Another reason for their better nurture in the times of old is 
that in those days the ox was largely fed and fatted for the 
table, just as is done with ourselves. At the present day, the 
flesh of the cattle is practically unused as food, that of the sheep 
or goat being always employed, even when a man gives a feast 
to his friends. But, in the old times, stalled oxen, i. e. oxen kept 
asunder from those which w^ere used for agricultural purposes, 
and expressly fatted for the table, were in constant use. See for 
example the well-known passage in the Prov. xv. 17, "Better is 
a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred 
therewith." Again, the Prophet Jeremiah makes use of a 
curious simile, " Egypt is like a very fair heifer, but destruction 
cometh ; it cometh out of the north. Also her hired men are in 
the midst of her like fatted bullocks [or, bullocks of the stall], 



134 



STORY OF TEE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



for they also are turned back, and are fled away together." 
(Jer. xlvi. 20.) And in 1 Kings iv. 22, 23, when describing the 
glories of Solomon's household, the sacred writer draws a dis- 
tinction between the oxen which were especially fattened for the 
table of the king and the superior officers, and those which were 
consumed by the lower orders of his household : " And Solomon's 
provision for one day was thirty measures of fine flour, and three- 
score measures of meal, ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the 
pastures, and an hundred sheep, beside harts, and roebucks, and 
fallow-deer, and fatted fowl." 




THE PKOBIGAL SON RETrR>'S, AXD THE FATTED CALF IS KILLED. 

Calves— mostly, if not always, bull-calves— were largely used 
for food in Palestine, and in the households of the wealthy were 
fatted for the table. See, for example, the familiar parable of 
the prodigal son, in which the rejoicing father is mentioned as 
preparing a great feast in honour of his son's return, and ordering 
the fatted calf to be killed— the calf in question being evidently 



CATTLE. 



135 



one of the animals that were kept in good condition against any 
festive occasion. And, even in the earliest history of the Bible, 
the custom of keeping a fatted calf evidently prevailed, as is 
shown by the conduct of Abraham, who, when he was visited by 




ABRAHAM OFFERS FOOD TO THE THREE STRANGERS. 



the three heavenly guests, " ran unto the herd, and fetched a calf, 
tender and good," and had it killed and dressed at once, after the 
still existing fashion of the East. 

But, even in the times of Israel's greatest prosperity, the chief 



136 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

use of the ox was as an agricultural labourer, \\m.^ reversing the 
custom of this country, where the horse has taken the place of 
the ox as a beast of draught, and where cattle are principally 
fed for food. Ploughing was, and is, always performed by oxen, 
and allusions to this office are scattered plentifully through the 
Old and New Testaments. 

When understood in this sense, oxen are almost always 
spoken of in connexion with the .^ord " yoke," and as each yoke 
comprised two oxen, it is evident that the word is used as we 
employ the term " brace," or pair. The yoke, which is the chief 
part of the harness, is a very simple affair. A tolerably stout 
beam of wood is cut of a sufficient length to rest upon the necks 
of the oxen standing side by side, and a couple of hollows are 
scooped out to receive the crest of the neck. In order to hold 
it in its place, two flexible sticks are bent under their necks, 
and the ends fixed into the beam of the yoke. In the middle 
of this yoke is fastened the pole of the plough or cart, and this 
is all the harness that is used, not even traces being required. 

It will be seen that so rude an implement as this would 
be very likely to gall the necks of the animals, unless the 
hollows were carefully smoothed, and the hea^'y beam adapted 
to the necks of the animals. This galling nature of the yoke, so 
familiar to the Israelites, is used repeatedly as a metaphor in 
many passages of the Old and New Testaments. These passages 
are too numerous to be quoted, but I will give one or two of the 
most conspicuous among them. The earliest mention of the 
yoke in the Scriptures is a metaphor. 

After Jacob had deceived his father, in procuring for himseK 
the blessing which was intended for his elder brother, Isaac 
comforts Esau by the prophecy that, although he must serve his 
brother, yet " it shall come to pass when thou shalt have the 
dominion, that thou shalt break his yoke from off thy neck." 
Again, in the next passage where the yoke is mentioned, namely, 
Lev. xxvi. 13, the word is employed in the metaphorical sense : 
" I am the Lord your God, which brought you forth out of the 
land of Egypt, that ye should not be their bondmen, and I have 
broken the bands of your yoke, and made you go upright." 

The plough was equally simple, and consisted essentially of a 
bent branch, one end of which was armed with an iron point bj' 
way of a share, while the other formed the pole or beam, and 



CATTLE. 137 

was fastened to the middle of the yoke. It was guided by a 
handle, which was usually a smaller branch that grew from the 
principal one. A nearly similar instrument is used in Asia 
Minor to the present day, and is a curious relic of the most 
ancient times of history, for we find on the Egyptian monuments 
figures of the various agricultural processes, in which the plough 
is made after this simple manner. 

Of course such an instrument is a very ineffective one, and can 
but scratch, rather than plough the ground, the warmth of the 
climate and fertility of the land rendering needless the deep 
ploughing of our own country, where the object is to turn up 
the earth to the greatest possible depth. One yoke of oxen was 
generally sufficient to draw a plough, but occasionally a much 
greater number were required. We read, for example, of Elisha, 
who, when he received his call from Elijah, was ploughing with 
twelve yoke of oxen, i. e. twenty-four. It has been suggested, 
that the twelve yoke of oxen were not all attached to the same 
plough, but that there were twelve ploughs, each with its single 
yoke of oxen. This was most probably the case. 

The instrument with which the cattle were driven was not a 
whip, but a goad. This goad was a long and stout "stick, armed 
with a spike at one end, and having a kind of spud at the other, 
with which the earth could be scraped off the share when it 
became clogged. Such an instrument might readily be used as 
a weapon, and, in the hands of a powerful man, might be made 
even more formidable than a spear. As a weapon, it often was 
used, as we see from many passages of the Scriptures. For 
example, it is said in Judges iii. 31, " that Shamgar the son of 
Anath killed six hundred Philistines with an ox-goad." 

Afterwards, in the beginning of Saul's reign, when the 
Israelites fairly measured themselves against the Philistines, it 
was found that only Saul and Jonathan were even tolerably 
armed. Fearful of the numbers and spirit of the Israielites, the 
Philistines had disarmed them, and were so cautious that they 
did not even allow them to possess forges wherewith to make or 
sharpen the various agricultural instruments which they pos- 
sessed, lest they should surreptitiously provide themselves with 
weapons. The only smith's tool which they were allowed to 
retain was a file with which each man might trim the edges of the 
ploughshares, mattocks, axes, and sharpen the points of the goad. 



138 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The only weapons which they could muster were made of their 
agricultural implements, and among the most formidable of 
them was the goad. 

How the goad came into use in Palestine may easily be seen. 
The Egyptians, from among whom the people of Israel passed 
into the Promised Land, did not use the goad in ploughing, but 
the whip, which, from the representations on the Egyptian 
monuments, was identical with the koorbash, or " cow-hide " 
whip, which is now in use in the same country. But this 
terrible whip, which is capable, when wielded by a skilful hand, 
of cutting deep grooves through the tough hide of tlie ox, could 
not be obtained by the Jews, because the hippopotamus, of whose 
hide it was made, did not live in or near Palestine. They 
therefore were forced to use some other instrument wherewith 
to urge on the oxen, and the goad was clearly the simplest and 
most effective implement for this purpose. 

After the land was ploughed and sown, and the harvest was 
ripened, the labours of the oxen were again called into requi- 
sition, first for threshing out the corn, and next for carrying or 
drawing the grain to the storehouses. 

In the earlier days, the process of threshing was very simple. 
A circular piece of ground was levelled, and beaten very hard 
and flat, its diameter being from fifty to a hundred feet. On 
this ground the corn was thrown, and a number of oxen were 
driven here and there on it, so that the constant trampling of 
their feet shook the ripe grain out of the ears. The corn was 
gathered together in the middle of the floor, and as fast as it 
was scattered by the feet of the oxen, it was thrown back 
towards the centre. 

Afterwards, an improvement was introduced in the form of a 
rough sledge, called " moreg," to which the oxen were harnessed 
by a yoke, and on which the driver stood as he guided his team 
round the threshing-floor. This instrument is mentioned in 
Isa. xli. 15 : "Behold, I wiU make thee a new and sharp threshing 
instrument having teeth [or mouths] : thou shalt thresh the moim- 
tains, and beat them small, and shalt make the hills as chaff." 
Mention is also made of the same implement in 2 Sam. xxiv. 22 
where it is related that Araunah the Jebusite offered to give 
David the oxen for a burnt-sacrifice, and the moregs and other 
implements as wood with which they could be burned. 



CATTLE. 



139 



The work of treading out the corn was a hard and trying one 
for the oxen, and it was probably on this account that the kindly 
edict was made, that the oxen who trod out the corn should not 
he muzzled. As a rule, the cattle were not fed nearly as care- 
fully as is done with us, a.nd so the labours of the threshing- 
floor would find a compensation in the temporary abundance of 
which the animals might take their fill. 




fTz^-^-^y/ 



OXEN TKEADING OUT GRAIN. 



After the corn was threshed, or rather trodden out, the oxeu 
had to draw it home in carts. These were but slight improve- 
ments on the threshing-sledge, and were simply trays or shallow 
boxes on a pair of wheels. As the wheels were merely slices cut 
from the trunk of a tree, and were not furnished with iron tires, 
they were not remarkable for roundness, and indeed, after a 
little time, were worn into rather irregular ovals, so that the task 



140 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



of dragging a cart over the rough roads was by no means an 
easy one. And, as the axle was simply a stout pole fastened to 
the bottom of the cart, and having its rounded ends thrust 
through holes in the middle of the wheels, the friction was 
enormous. As, moreover, oil and grease were far too precious 




EASTKKN OX-CART. 



luxuries to be wasted in lubricating the axles, the creaking 
and groaning of the w^heels was a singularly disagreeable and 
ear-piercing sound. 

The common hackery of India is a good example of the carts 
mentioned in the Scriptures. As with the plough, the cart was 
drawn by a couple of oxen, connected by the yoke. The two 
kinds of cart, namely, the tray and the box, are clearly indicated 
Ui the Scriptures. The new cart on which the Ark was placed 
when it was sent back by the Philistines (see 1 Sam. vi. 7) was 
evidently one of the former kind, and so was that which was 
made twenty years afterwards, for the purpose of conveying the 
Ark to Jerusalem, 

Although the cattle were evidently better tended in the olden 
times than at present, those animals which were used for agri- 



CATTLE. 



141 



culture seem to have passed rather a rough life, especially in tlie 
winter time. It is rather curious that the Jews should have 
had no idea of preserving the grass by making it into hay, as is 
done in Europe. Consequently the chief food of the cattle was 
the straw and chaff which remained on the threshing-floor after 
the grain had been separated. 




THE ARK OF THE COVENANT BEING DRAWN BY COWS. 



This, indeed, was the only use to which the straw could be 
put, for it was so crushed and broken by the feet of the oxen 
and the threshing-sledge that it was rendered useless. 

The want of winter forage is the chief reason why cattle are 
so irregularly disposed over Palestine, many parts of that 
eountry being entirely without them, and only those districts 
containing them in which fresh forage may be found throughout 
the year. 

Except a few yoke of oxen, which are kept in order to draw 
carts, and act as beasts of burden, the cattle are turned loose 
for a considerable portion of the year, and run about in herds 



142 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

from one pasturage to another. Thus they regain many of the 
characteristics of wild animals, and it is to this habit of theirs 
that many of the Scriptural allusions can be traced. 

For example, see Ps. xxii. 12, " Many bulls have com- 
passed me, strong bulls of Bashan have beset me round. They 
gaped on me with their mouths [or, their mouths opened against 
me] as a ravening and a roaring lion." This passage alludes to 
the curiosity inherent in cattle, which have a habit of following 
objects which they do not understand or dislike, and surround- 
ing it with looks of grave wonderment. Even in their domesti- 
cated state this habit prevails. When I was a boy, I sometimes 
amused myself with going into a field where a number of cows 
and oxen were grazing, and lying down in the middle of it. 
The cattle would soon become uneasy, toss their heads about, 
and gradually draw near on every side, until at last they would 
be pressed together closely in a circle, with their heads just 
above the object of their astonishment. Their curious, earnest 
looks have always been present to my mind when reading the 
above quoted passage. 

The Psalmist does not necessarily mean that the bulls in 
question were dangerous animals. On the contrary, the bulls 
of Palestine are gentle in comparison with our own animals, 
which are too often made savage by confinement and the harsh 
treatment to which they are subjected by rough and ignorant 
labourers. In Palestine a pair of bulls may constantly be seen 
attached to the same yoke, a thing that never would be seen in 
this country. 

The custom of turning the herds of cattle loose to find 
pasture for themselves is alluded to in Joel i. 18, " How do 
the beasts groan ! the herds of cattle are perplexed because they 
have no pasture." We can easily imagine to ourselves the 
terrible time to which the prophet refers, " when the rivers 
of waters are dried up, and the fire hath devoured the pas- 
tures of the wilderness," as it is wont to do when a spark 
falls upon grass dried up and withered, by reason of the sun's 
heat and the lack of water. Over such a country, first withered 
by drought, and then desolated by fire, would the cattle wander, 
vainly searching on the dusty and blackened surface for the 
tender young blades which always spring up on a burnt pasture 
as soon as the first rains fall IMoaning and bellowing with 




PLOUGHING WITH OXEN. 



144 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

thirst and disappointment, they would vainly seek for food or 
water in places where the seed lies stftl under the clods where it 
was sown (v. 17), where the vines are dried up, and the fig, the 
pomegranate and the palm (v. 12) are all withered for want of 
moisture. 

Such scenes are still to be witnessed in several parts of the 
world. Southern Africa is sometimes sadly conspicuous for 
them, an exceptional season of drought keeping back the fresh 
grass after the old pastures have been burned (the ordinary mode 
of cultivating pasture land). Then the vast herds of cattle, 
whose milk forms the staff of life to the inhabitants, wander to 
and fro, gathering in masses round any spot where a spring still 
yields a little water, and bellowing and moaning with thirst as 
they press their way towards the spot where their owners are 
doling out to each a small measure of the priceless fluid. 

The cattle are branded with the mark of their owners, so that 
in these large herds there might be no difficulty in distinguish- 
ing them when they were re-captured for the plough and the 
cart. On one of the Egyptian monuments there is a very 
interesting group, which has furnished the idea for the plate 
which illustrates this article. It occurs in the tombs of the 
kings at Thebes, and represents a ploughing scene. The simple 
two-handled plough is being dragged by a pair of cows, who 
have the yoke fastened across the horns instead of lying on 
the neck, and a sower is following behind, scattering the grain 
out of a basket into the newly-made furrows. In front of the 
cows is a young calf, which has run to meet its mother, and is 
leaping for joy before her as she steadily plods along her course. 

The action of both animals is admirably represented; the 
steady and firm gait of the mother contrasting with the light, 
gambolling step and arched tail of her offspring. 

In the olden times of the Israelitish race, herd-keeping was 
considered as an honourable occupation, in which men of the 
highest rank might engage without any derogation to their 
dignity. We find, for instance, that Saul himself, even after he 
had been appointed king, was acting as herdsman when the 
people saw the mistake they had made in rejecting him as their 
monarch, and came to fetch their divinely-appointed leader from 
his retirement, (See 1 Sam. xi. 5.) Doeg, too, the faithful com- 
panion of Saul, was made the chief herdsman of his master's 



CATTLE. 145 

cattle, so that for Saul to confer such an office, and Doeg to 
accept it, shows that the post was one of much honour. And 
afterwards, when David was in the zenith of his power, he 
completed the organization of his kingdom, portioning out not 
only his army into battalions, and assigning a commanding 
officer to each battalion, but also appointing a ruler to each 
tribe, and setting officers over his treasury, over the vineyards, 
over the olive-trees, over the storehouses, and over the cattle. And 
these offices were so important that the names of their holders 
are given at length in 1 Chron. xxvii. .those of the various herds- 
men being thought as worthy of mention as those of the 
treasurers, the military commanders, or the headmen of the 
tribes. 

Before concluding this necessarily short account of the domes- 
ticated oxen of Palestine, it will be needful to give a few lines 
to the animal viewed in a religious aspect. Here we have, in 
bold contrast to each other, the divine appointment of certain 
cattle to be slain as sacrifices, and the reprobation of worship 
paid to those very cattle as living emblems of divinity. This 
false worship was learned by the Israelites during their long 
residence in Egypt, and so deeply had the customs of the Egyp- 
tian religion sunk into their hearts, that they were not eradi- 
cated after the lapse of centuries. It may easily be imagined 
that such a superstition, surrounded as it was with ever)' ex- 
ternal circumstance which could make it more imposing, would 
take a powerful hold of the Jewish mind. 

Chief among the multitude of idols or symbols was the god 
Apis, represented by a bull. Many other animals, specially the 
cat and the ibis, were deeply honoured among the ancient Egyp- 
tians, as we learn from their own monuments and from the 
works of the old historians. All these creatures were symbols 
as well as idols, symbols to the educated and idols to the 
ignorant. 

None of them was held in such universal honour as the bull 
Apis. The particular animal which represented the deity, and 
which was lodged with great state and honour in his temple at 
Memphis, was thought to be divinely selected for the purpose, 
and to be impressed with certain marks. His colour must be 
black, except a square spot on the forehead, a crescent-shaped 
white spot on the right side, and the figure of an eagle on his 
7 



146 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

back. Under the tongue must be a knob shaped like the sacred 
scarabaeus, and the hairs of his tail must be double. 

This representative animal was only allowed to live for a 
certain time, and when he had reached this allotted period, he 
was taken in solemn procession to the Nile, and drowned in 




MUMMY OF A SACRED BULL TAKEN FROM AN EGYPTIAN TOMB. 

its sacred waters. His body was then embalmed, and placed 
with great state in the tombs at Memphis. 

After his death, whether natural or not, the whole nation 
went into mourning, and exhibited all the conventional signs of 
sorrow, until the priests found another bull which possessed 
the distinctive marks. The people then threw off their mourn- 
ing robes, and appeared in their best attire, and the sacred bull 
was exhibited in state for forty days before he was taken to his 
temple at Memphis. The reader will here remember the analo- 
gous case of the Indian cattle, some of which are held to be 
little less than incarnations of divinity. 

Even at the very beginning of the exodus, when their minds 
must have been filled with the many miracles that had been 
wrought in their behalf, and with the cloud and fire of Sinai 
actually before their eyes, Aaron himself made an image* of a 
calf in gold, and set it up as a symbol of the Lord. That the idol 
in question was intended as a symbol by Aaron is evident from 
the words which he used when summoning the people to worship, 
" To-morrow is a feast of the Lord" (Gen. xxxii. 5). The people, 
however, clearly lacked the power of discriminating between the 



CATTLE. 



147 




ANIMALS BEING SOLD FOR SACRIFICE IN THE PORCH OF THE TEMPLE. 



148 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



symbol and that which it represented, and worshipped the image 
just as any other idol might be worshipped. And, in spite of 
the terrible and swift punishment that followed, and which 
showed the profanity of the act, the idea of ox- worship still 
remained among the people. 

Five hundred years afterwards we find a familiar example of 
it in the conduct of Jeroboam, "who made Israel to sin," the 
peculiar crime being the open resuscitation of ox-worship. " The 
king made two calves of gold and said unto them, It is too much 
fur you to go up to Jerusalem : behold thy gods, Israel, which 




JEROBOAM SETS UP A GOLDEN CALF AT BETHEL. 



brought thee up out of the land of Egypt. And he set the one 
in Bethel, and the other put he in Dan. . . . And he made an 
house of high places, and made priests of the lowest of the 
people, which were not of the tribe of Levi. And Jeroboam 
ordained a feast. . . . like unto the feast in Judah, and he 
offered upon the altc^r. So did he in Bethel, sacrificing unto 
the calves that he had made." 

Here we have a singular instance of a king of Israel repeat- 
ing, after a lapse of five hundred years, the very acts which had 
drawn down on the people so severe a punishment, and which 
were so contrary to the law that they had incited Moses to fling 
down and break the sacred tables on which the commandments 
had been divinely inscribed. 



CATTLE. 



149 



Another species of the ox-tribe now inhabits Palestine, 
though commentators rather doubt whether it is not a conipa- 
rattvely late importation. This is the true Buffalo {Buhalus 
huffelus, Gray), which is spread over a very large portion of the 
earth, and is very plentiful in India. In that country there 
are two distinct breeds of the Buffalo, namely, the Arnee, a wild 




THE BUFFALO. 



variety, and the Bhainsa, a tamed variety. The former animal 
is much larger than the latter, being sometimes more than teu 
feet in length from the nose to the root of the tail, and measur- 
ing between six and seven feet in height at the shoulder. Its 
horns are of enormous length, the tail is very short, and tufts of 
hair grow on the forehead and horns. The tamed variety is at 
least one-third smaller, and, unlike the Arnee, never seems to 
get into high condition. It is an ugly, ungainly kind of beast, 
and is rendered very unprepossessing to the eye by the bald 
patches which are mostly found upon its hide. 



150 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Being a water-loving animal, the Buffalo always inhabits the 
low-lying districts, and is fond of wallowing in the oozy marshes 
in which it remains for hours, submerged all but its head, and 
tranquilly chewing the cud while enjoying its mud-bath. While 
thus engaged the animal depresses its horns so that they are 
scarcely visible, barely allowing more than its eyes, ears, and 
nostrils to remain above the surface, so that the motionless 
heads are scarcely distinguishable from the grass and reed tufts 
which stud the marshes. Nothing is more startling to an inex- 
perienced traveller than to pass by a silent and tranquil pool 
where the muddy surface is unbroken except by a number of 
black lumps and rushy tufts, and then to see these tufts suddenly 
transformed into twenty or thirty huge beasts rising out of the 
still water as if by magic. Generally, the disturber of their 
peace had better make the best of his way out of their reach, as 
the Buffalo, whether wild or tame, is of a tetchy and irritable 
nature, and resents being startled out of its state of dreamy 
repose. 

In the Jordan valley the Buffalo is found, and is used for 
agriculture, being of the Bhainsa, or domesticated variety. 
Being much larger and stronger than the ordinary cattle, it is 
useful in drawing the plough, but its temper is too uncertain 
to render it a pleasant animal to manage. As is the case with 
all haK-wild cattle, its milk is very scanty, but compensates 
by the richness of the quality for the lack of quantity. 

In the picture which appears on a folio wiQg page, one of these 
domesticated Buffaloes is represented, harnessed with a camel, to a 
rude form of plough used in the East. 



152 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE WILD BULL. 

The To, "Wild Bull of the Old Testament — Passages in which it is mentioned — The 
"Wild Bull in the net— Hunting with nets in the East — The Oryx supposed to 
be the To of Scripture — Description of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and 
habits — The points in which the Oryx agrees with the T6— The " snare " in 
which the foot is taken, as distinguished from the net. 

In two passages of the Old Testament an animal is mentioned, 
respecting which the translators and commentators have been 
somewhat perplexed, in one passage being translated as the 
" Wild Ox/' and in the other as the " WM BuU." In the 
Jewish Bible the same rendering is preserved, but the sign of 
doubt is added to the word in both cases, showing that the 
translation is an uncertain one. 

The first of these passages occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, where it is 
classed together with the ox, sheep, goats, and other ruminants, 
as one of the beasts which were lawful for food. Now, although 
we cannot identify it by this passage, we can at all events ascer- 
tain two important points — the first, that it was a true ruminant, 
and the second, that it was not the ox, the sheep, or the goat. 
It was, therefore, some wild ruminant, and we now have to ask 
how we are to find out the species. 

If we turn to Isa. li. 20, we shall find a passage which will 
help us considerably. Addressing Jerusalem, the prophet uses 
these words, " By whom shall I comfort thee ? Thy sons have 
fainted, they lie at the head of all the streets, as a wild bull in 
a net ; they are full of the fury of the Lord, the rebuke of 
thy God." We now see that the To or Teo must be an animal 
which is captured by means of nets, and therefore must inhabit 
spots wherein the toils can be used. Moreover, it is evidently 
a powerful animal, or the force of the simile would be lost. 
The prophet evidently refers to some large and strong beast 
which has been entangled in the hunter's nets, and which lies 
helplessly struggling in them. We are, therefore, almost per- 
force driven to recognise it as some large antelope. 



THE WILD BULL. 153 

The expression used by the prophet is so characteristic that 
it needs a short explanation. In this country, and at the present 
day, the use of the net is almost entirely restricted to fishing 
and bird-catching ; but in the East nets are still employed in the 
capture of very large game. 

A brief allusion to the hunting-net is made at page 31, but, as 
the passage in Isaiah li. requires a more detailed account of this 
mode of catching large animals, it will be as well to describe 
the sport as at present practised in the East. 

When a king or some wealthy man determines to hunt game 
without taking much trouble himself, he gives orders to his men 
to prepare their nets, which vary in size or strength according to 
the particular animal for which they are intended. If, for ex- 
ample, only the wild boar and similar animals are to be hucited, 
the nets need not be of very great width ; but for agile creatures, 
such as the antelope, they must be exceedingly wide, or the 
intended prey will leap over them. As the net is much used in 
India for the purpose of catching game. Captain Williamson's 
description of it wiU explain many of the passages of Scripture 
wherein it is mentioned. 

The material of the net is hemp, twisted loosely into a kind 
of rope, and the mode in which it is formed is rather peculiar. 
The meshes are not knotted together, but only twisted round 
each other, much after the fashion of the South American ham- 
mocks, so as to obtain considerable elasticity, and to prevent a 
powerful animal from snapping the cord in its struggles. Some 
of these nets are thirteen feet or more in width, and even such 
a net as this has been overleaped by a herd of antelopes. Their 
length is variable, but, as they can be joined in any number when 
set end to end, the length is not so important as the width. 

The mode of setting the nets is singularly ingenious. When 
a suitable spot has been selected, the first care of the hunters is 
to stretch a rope as tightly as possible along the ground. For 
this purpose stout wooden stakes or truncheons are sunk cross- 
wise in the earth, and between these the rope is carefully 
strained. The favourite locality of the net is a ravine, through 
which the animals can be driven so as to run against the net in 
tlieir efforts to escape, and across the ravine a whole row of 
these stakes is sunk. Tlie net is now brought to the spot, 
and its lower edge fastened strongly to the ground rope. 
7* 



154 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The strength of this mode of fastening is astonisldng, and, 
although the stakes are buried scarcely a foot below the surface, 
they cannot be torn up by any force which can be applied to 
them ; and, however strong the rope may be, it would be broken 
before the stakes could be dragged out of the ground. 

A smaller rope is now attached to the upper edge of the 
net, wliich is raised upon a series of slight poles. It is not 
stretched quite tightly, but droops between each pair of poles, 
so that a net which is some thirteen feet in width will only give 
nine or ten feet of clear height when the upper edge is sup- 
ported on the poles. These latter are not fixed in the ground, 
but merely held in their places by the weight of the net resting 
upon them. 

When the nets have been properly set, the beaters make a 
wide circuit through the country, gradually advancing towards 
the fatal spot, and driving before them all the wild animals that 
inhabit the neighbourhood. As soon as any large beast, such, 
for example, as an antelope, strikes against the net, the support- 
ing pole falls, and the net collapses upon the unfortunate animal, 
whose struggles — especially if he be one of the horned animals 
— only entangle him more and more in the toils. 

As soon as the hunters see a portion of the net fall, they run 
to the spot, kill the helpless creature that lies enveloped in the 
elastic meshes, drag away the body, and set up the net again 
in readiness for the next comer. Sometimes the line of nets 
will extend for half a mile or more, and give employment to a 
large staff of hunters, in killing the entangled animals, and 
raising afresh those portions of the net which had fallen. 

Accepting the theory that the To is one of the large antelopes 
that inhabit, or used to inhabit, the Holy Land and its neigh- 
bourhood, we may safely conjecture that it may signify the 
beautiful animal known as the Oryx {Oryx lev/^oryx), an animal 
which has a tolerably wide range, and is even now found on the 
borders of the Holy Land. It is a large and powerful antelope, 
and is remarkable for its beautiful horns, which sometimes 
exceed a yard in length, and sweep in a most graceful curve over 
the back. 

Sharp as they are, and evidently formidable weapons, the 
manner in which they are set on the head renders them appa- 



THE WILD BULL. 



155 



rontly unserviceable for combat. When, liowever, the Oryx is 
i)rought to bay, or wishes to fight, it stoops its head until the 
nose is close to the ground, the points of the horns being thus 




WIIJ> BDLIi, OR OB7X. 

brought to the front. As the head is swung from side to side, 
the curved horns sweep through a considerable space, and are sc 
formidable that even the lion is chary of attacking their owner. 
Indeed, instances are known where the lion has been transfixed 
and killed by the horns of the Oryx. Sometimes the animal 
is not content with merely standing to repel the attacks of its 
adversaries, but suddenly charges forward with astonishing rapi- 
dity, and strikes upwards with its horns as it makes the leap. 

But these horns, which can be used with such terrible effect 
in battle, are worse than useless when the animal is hampered 
in the net. In" vain does the Oryx attempt its usual defence : 
the curved horns get more and more entangled in the elastic 
meshes, and become a source of weakness rather than strength. 
We see now how singularly appropriate is the passage, " Thy 



156 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

sons lie at the heads of all the streets, as a wild bull (or Oryx) 
in a net," and how completely the force of the metaphor is lost 
without a knowledge of the precise mode of fixing the nets, oi 
driving the animals into them, and of the manner in which they 
render even the large and powerful animals helpless. 

The height of the Oryx at the shoulder is between three and 
four feet, and its colour is greyish white, mottled profusely with 
black and brown in bold patches. It is plentiful in Northern 
Africa, and, like many other antelopes, lives in herds, so that it 
is peculiarly suited to that mode of hunting which consists in 
surrounding a number of animals, and driving them into a trap 
of some kind, whether a fenced enclosure, a pitfall, or a net. 

There is, by the way, the term "snare," which is specially 
used with especial reference to catching the foot as distinguished 
from the net which enveloped the whole body. For example, 
in Job xviii. 8, " He is cast into a net, he walketh on a snare," 
where a bold distinction is drawn between the two and their 
mode of action. And in ver. 10, " The snare is laid for him in 
the ground." Though I would not state definitely that such is 
the case, I believe that tb« snare which is here mentioned is one 
which is still used in several parts of the world. 

It is simply a hoop, to the inner edge of which are fastened 
a number of elastic spikes, the points being directed towards the 
centre. This is merely laid in the path which the animal will 
take, and is tied by a short cord to a log of wood. As the deer 
or antelope treads on the snare, the foot passes easily through 
the elastic spikes, but, when the foot is raised, the spikes run 
into the joint and hold the hoop upon the limb. Terrified by 
the check and the sudden pang, the animal tries to run away, 
but, by the united influence of sharp spikes and the heavy log, 
it is soon forced to halt, and so becomes an easy prey to its 
pursuers. 



THE WILD BULL 



157 





THE UNICORN. 

The Unicorn apparently known to the Jews — 
Its evident connection with the Ox tribe — 
Its presumed identity with the now extinct Urus — Enormous 
size and dangerous character of the Urus, 

There are many animals mentioned in the Scrip- 
tures which are identified with difficulty, partly because their 

158 



THE WILD BULL, 159 

names occur only once or twice in the sacred writings, and 
partly because, when they are mentioned, the context affords no 
clue to their identity by giving any hint as to their appearance 
or habits. In such cases, although the translators would have 
done better if they had simply given the Hebrew word without 
endeavouring to identify it with any known animal, they may 
be excused for committing errors in their nomenclature. There 
is one ammal, however, for which no such excuse can be found, 
and this is the Keem of Scripture, translated as Unicorn in the 
authorized version. 

Even in late years the Unicorn has been erroneously supposed 
to be identical with the Khinoceros of India It is, however, now 
certain that the Unicorn was not the Rhinoceros, and that it can 
be almost certainly identified with an animal which, at the time 
when the passages in question were written, was plentiful in Pal- 
estine, although, like the Lion, it is now extinct. 

On turning to the Jewish Bible we find that the word Reein 
is translated as buffalo, and there is no doubt that this rendering 
is nearly the correct one. At the present day naturalists are 
nearly all agreed that the Unicorn of the Old Testament must 
have been of the Ox tribe. Probably the Urus, a species now 
extinct, was the animal alluded to. A smaller animal, the Bonas- 
sus or Bison, also existed in Palestine, and even to the present day 
continues to maintain itself in one or two spots, though it will 
probably be as soon completely erased from the surface of the 
earth as its gigantic congener. 

That the Unicorn was one of the two animals is certain, and 
that it was the larger is nearly as certain. The reason for de- 
ciding upon the Urus is, that its horns were of great size and 
strength, and therefore agree with the description of the Unicorn ; 
whereas those of the Bonassus, although powerful, are short, and 
not conspicuous enough to deserve the notice which is taken of 
them by the sacred writers. 

Of the extinct variety we know but little. We do know, how- 
ever, that it was a huge and most formidable beast, as is evident 
from the skulls and other bones which have been discovered. 
Their character also indicates that the creature was nothing more 
than a very large Ox, probably measuring twelve feet in length, 
and six feet in height. Such a wild animal, armed, as it was, with 
enormous horns, would prove a most formidable antagonist. 




THE BISON. 



The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks — Its former existence in Palestine — 
Its general habits — Origin of its name — Its musky odour — Size and speed of 
the Bison — Its dangerous character when brought to bay — Its defence against 
the wolf — Its untameable disposition. 



A FEW words are now needful respecting the second animal 
which has been mentioned in connexion with the Eeem ; namely, 
the Bison, or Bonassus. The Bisons are distinguishable from 
ordinary cattle by the thick and heavy mane which covers the 
neck and shoulders, and which is more conspicuous in the male 
than in the female. The general coating of the body is also 
rather different, being thick and woolly instead of lying closely 
to the skin like that of the other oxen. The Bison certainly 
inhabited Palestine, as its bones have been found in that 
country. It has, however, been extinct in the Holy Land for 
many years, and, not being an animal that is capable of with- 
standing the encroachments of man, it has gradually died out 
from the greater part of Europe and Asia, and is now to be 
foujid only in a very limited locality, chiefly in a Lithuanian 
forest, where it is strictly preserved, and in some parts of the 
Caucasus. There it still preserves the habits which made its 

160 



THE BISON. 



161 



ancient and gigantic relative so dangerous an animal. Unlike 
the buffalo, which loves the low-lying and marshy lands, the 
Bison prefers the high wooded localities, where it lives in small 
troops. 

Its name of Bison is a modification of the word Bisam, or 
musk, which was given to it on account of the strong musky 




4~^ 



BISON KIt-LINO WOLF. 



odour of its flesh, which is especially powerful about the head 
and neck. This odour is not so unpleasant as might be sup- 
posed, and those who have had personal experience of the 
animal say that it bears some resemblance to the perfume of 
violets. It is developed most strongly in the adult bulls, the 
cows and young male calves only possessing it in a slight 
degree. 

It is a tolerably large animal, being about six feet high at the 
shoulder — a stature nearly equivalent to that of the ordinary 
Asiatic elephant ; and, in spite of its great bulk, is a fleet and 
active animal, as indeed is generally the case with those oxen 



162 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

which inhabit elevated localities. Still, though it can run with 
considerable speed, it is not able to keep up the pace for any 
great distance, and at the end of a mile or two can be brought 
to bay. 

Like most animals, however large and powerful they may be, 
it fears the presence of man, and, if it sees or scents a human 
being, will try to slip quietly away ; but when it is baffled in 
this attempt, and forced to fight, it becomes a fierce and dan- 
gerous antagonist, charging with wonderful quickness, and usins 
its short and powerful horns with great effect. A wounded 
Bison, when fairly brought to bay, is perhaps as awkward an 
opponent as can be found, and to kill it without the aid of fire- 
arms is no easy matter. 

Although the countries in which it lives are infested with 
wolves, it seems to have no fear of them when in health ; and, 
even when pressed by their winter's hunger, the wolves do not 
venture to attack even a single Bison, much less a herd of them. 
Like other wild cattle, it likes to dabble in muddy pools, and is 
fond of harbouring in thickets near such localities; and those 
who have to travel through the forest keep clear of such s-pots, 
unless they desire to drive out the animal for the purpose of 
killing it. 

Like the extinct Aurochs, the Bison has never been domesti- 
cated, and, although the calves have been captured while very 
young, and attempts have been made to train them to harness, 
their innate wildness of disposition has always baffled such 
eiforts. 




THE GAZELLE, 



ROE OF SCRIPTURE. 



Its swiftness, its beauty, and the quality of its flesh — Different varieties of the 
Gazelle — How the Gazelle defends itself against wild beasts — Chase of the 
Gazelle. 



We now leave the Ox tribe, and come to the Antelopes, several 
species of which are mentioned in the Scriptures. Four kinds 
of antelope are found in or near the Holy Land, and there is 
little doubt that all of them are mentioned in the sacred vol- 



ume. 



The first that will be described is the Gazelle, which is ac- 
knowledged to be the animal that is represented by the word 
Tsebi, or Tsebiyah. The Jewish Bible accepts the same rendering. 



163 



164 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



This word occurs many times, sometimes as a metaphor, and 
sometimes representing some animal which was lawful food, and 
which therefore belonged to the true ruminants. Moreover, its 
flesh was not only legally capable of being eaten, but was held 
in such estimation that it was provided for the table of Solomon 
himself, together with other animals which will be described in 
their turn. 







Wk^& 






THE GAZELLE. 



It is even now considered a great dainty, although it is not at 
all agreeable to European taste, being hard, dry, and without 
flavour. Still, as has been well remarked, tastes difier as well 
as localities, and an article of food which is a costly luxury in 
one land is utterly disdained in another, and will hardly be eaten 
except by one who is absolutely dying of starvation. 

The Gazelle is very common in Palestine in the present day, 
and, in the ancient times, must have been even more plentiful. 
There are several varieties of it, which were once thought to be 



THE GAZELLE. 165 

distinct species, but are now acknowledged to be mere varieties, 
dU of which are referable to the single species Gazella Dorcas. 
There is, for example, the Corinna, or Corine Antelope, which is 
a rather boldly-spotted female ; the Kevella Antelope, in which 
the horns are slightly flattened ; the small variety called the 
Ariel, or Cora ; the grey Kevel, which is a rather large variety ; 
and the Long-horned Gazelle, which owes its name to a rather 
large development of the horns. 

Whatever variety may inhabit any given spot, they all have 
the same habits. They are gregarious animals, associating 
t^ogether in herds often of considerable size, and deriving from 
their numbers an element of strength which would otherwise be 
wanting. Against mankind, numbers are of no avail ; but when 
the agile though feeble Gazelle has to defend itself against the 
predatory animals of its own land, it can only defend itself 
by the concerted action of the whole herd. Should, for example, 
the wolves prowl round a herd of Gazelles, after their treacherous 
wont, the Gazelles instantly ^sume a posture of self-defence. 
They form themselves into a compact phalanx, all the males 
coming to the front, and the strongest and boldest taking on 
themselves the honourable duty of facing the foe. The does 
and the young are kept within their ranks, and so formidable is 
the array of sharp, menacing horns, that beasts as voracious as 
the wolf, and far more powerful, have been known to retire 
without attempting to charge. 

As a rule, however; the Gazelle does not desire to resist, and 
prefers its legs to its horns as a mode of insuring safety. So 
fleet is the animal, that it seems to fly over the ground as if 
propelled by volition alone, and its light, agile frame is so en- 
during, that a fair chase has hardly any prospect of success. 
Hunters, therefore, prefer a trap of some kind, if they chase 
the animal merely for food or for the sake of its skin, and con- 
trive to kill considerable numbers at once. Sometimes they 
dig pitfalls, and drive the Gazelles into them by beating a large 
tract of country, and gradually narrowing the circle. Sometimes 
they use nets, such as have already been described, and some- 
times they line the sides of a ravine with archers and spearmen, 
and drive the herd of Gazelles through the treacherous defile. 

These modes of slaughter are, however, condemned by the 
true hunter, who looks upon those who use them much in the 



166 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

same light as an English sportsman looks on a man who shoots 
foxes. The greyhound and the falcon are both employed in the 
legitimate capture of the Gazelle, and in some cases both are 
trained to work together. Hunting the Gazelle with the gr«y- 
hound very much resembles coursing in our own country, and 
chasing it with the hawk is exactly like the system of falconry 
that was once so popular an English sport, and which even now 
shows signs of revival. 

It iS; however, when the dog and the bird are trained to work 
together that the spectacle becomes really novel and interesting 
to an English spectator. 

As soon as the Gazelles are fairly in view, the hunter unhoods 
his hawk, and holds it up so that it may see the animals. The 
bird fixes its eye on one Gazelle, and by that glance the animal's 
doom is settled. The falcon darts after the Gazelles, followed by 
the dog, who keeps his eye on the hawk, and holds himself in 
readiness to attack the animal that his feathered ally may select. 
Suddenly the falcon, which has been for some few seconds 
hovering over the herd of Gazelles, makes a stoop upon the 
selected victim, fastening its talons in its forehead, and, as it 
tries to shake off its strange foe, flaps its wings into the Gazelle's 
eyes so as to blind it. Consequently, the rapid course of the 
antelope is arrested^ so that the dog is able to come up and 
secure the animal while it is struggling to escape from its 
feathered enemy. Sometimes, though rarely, a young and in- 
experienced hawk swoops down with such reckless force that it 
misses the forehead of the Gazelle, and impales itself upon the 
sharp horns, just as in England the falcon is apt to be spitted 
on the bill of the heron. 

The most sportsmanlike mode of hunting the Gazelle is to use 
the falcon alone ; but for this sport a bird must possess excep- 
tional strength, swiftness, and intelligence. A very spirited 
account of such a chase is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud, in his 
" Druses of the Lebanon :" — 

" Whilst reposing here, our old friend with the falcon informs 
us that at a short distance from this spot is a khan called Nebbi 
Youni, from a supposition that the prophet Jonah was here 
landed by the whale ; but the old man is very indignant when 
we identify the place with a fable, and declare to him that 
similar sights are to be seen at Gaza and Scanderoon. But his 



THE GAZELLE. 167 

good humour is speedily recovered by revertiDg to the subject 
of the exploits aud cleverness of his falcon. This reminds him 
that we have not much time to waste in idle talk, as the gi-eater 
heats will drive the gazelles from the plains to the mountain 
retreats, and lose us the opportunity of enjoying the most 
sportsmanlike amusement in Syria. Accordingly, bestriding our 
animals again, we ford the river at that point where a bridge 
once stood. 

" We have barely proceeded twenty minutes before the keen 
eye of the falconer has descried a herd of gazelles quietly grazing 
in the distance. Immediately he reins in his horse, and enjoining 
silence, instead of riding at them, as we might have felt inclined 
to do, he skirts along the banks of the river, so as to cut off, if 
possible, the retreat of these fleet animals where the banks are 
narrowest, though very deep, but which would be cleared at a 
single leap by the gazelles. Having successfully accomplished 
this manoeuvre, he again removes the hood from the hawk, and 
indicates to us that precaution is no longer necessary. Accord- 
ingly, first adding a few slugs to the charges in our barrels, we 
balance our guns in an easy posture, and, giving the liorses 
their reins, set off at full gallop, and with a loud hurrah, right 
towards the already startled gazelles. 

"The timid animals, at first paralysed by our appearance, 
stand and gaze for a second terror-stricken at our approach ; but 
their pause is only momentary ; they perceive in an instant that 
the retreat to their favourite haunts has been secured, and so 
they dash wildly forward with all the fleetness of despair, 
coursing over the plain with no fixed refuge in view, and nothing 
but their fleetness to aid in their delivery. A stern chase is a 
long chase, and so, doubtless, on the present occasion it would 
prove with ourselves, for there is many and many a mile of 
level country before us, and our horses, though swift of foot, 
stand no chance in this respect with the gazelles. 

" Now, however, the old man has watched for a good oppor- 
tunity to display the prowess and skill of his falcon : he has 
followed us only at a hand-gallop ; but the hawk, long inured to 
such pastime, stretches forth its neck eagerly in the direction of 
the flying prey, and beiag loosened from its pinions, sweeps up 
into the air like a shot, and passes overhead with incredible 
velocity. Five minutes more, and the bird has outstripped even 



168 



STOHY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



the speed of the light-footed gazelle ; we see him through the 
dust and haze that our own speed throws around us, hovering 
but an instant over the terrified herd ; he has singled out his 




THE FALCON USED IN OUR HUNT. 

prey, and, diving with unerring aim, fixes his iron talons intc 
the head of the terrified animal. 

"This is the signal for the others to break up their orderly- 
retreat, and to speed over the plain in every direction. Some, 
despite the danger that hovers on theii* track, make straight for 
their old and familiar haunts, and passing within twenty yards 
of where we ride, afford us an opportunity of displaying our 
skill as amateur huntsmen on horseback ; nor does it require 
but little nerve and dexterity to fix our aim whilst our horses 
are tearing over the ground. However, the moment presents 
itself, the loud report of barrel after barrel startles the unac- 
customed inmates of that unfrequented waste ; one gazelle leaps 
twice its own height into the air, and then rolls over, shot 
through the heart ; another bounds on yet a dozen paces, but, 



THE GAZELLE. 



169 



wounded mortally, staggering, halts, and then falls to the 
ground. 

" This is no time for us to pull in and see what is the amount 
of damage done, for the falcon, heedless of all surrounding 
incidents, clings firmly to the head of its terrified victim, flap- 
ping its strong wings awhile before the poor brute's terrified 
eyes, half blinding it and rendering its head dizzy ; till, after 
tearing round and round with incredible speed, the poor creature 
stops, panting for breath, and, overcome with excessive terror. 




THE ARAB IS DELIGHTED AT THE SUCCESS OP THE UUNI 



drops down fainting upon the earth. Now the air resounds with 
the acclamations and hootings of the ruthless victors. 

" The Arab is wild in liis transports of delight. More cer- 

8 



170 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

tain of the prowess of his bird than ourselves, he had stopped 
awhile to gather together the fruits of our booty, and now gal- 
loped furiously up, waving his long gun, and shouting lustily 
the while the praises of his infallible hawk ; then getting doAvn, 
and hoodwinking the bird again, he first of all takes the 
precaution of fastening together the legs of the fallen gazelle, 
and then he humanely blows up into its nostrils. Gradually 
the natural brilliancy returns to the dimmed eyes of the gazelle, 
then it struggles valiantly, but vainly, to disentangle itseK from 
its fetters. 

" Pitying its efforts, the falconer throws a handkerchief over 
its head, and, securing this prize, claims it as Ids own, declaring 
that he will bear it home to his house in the mountains, where, 
after a few weeks' kind treatment and care, it will become as 
domesticated and affectionate as a spaniel. Meanwhile, Abou 
Shein gathers together the fallen booty, and, tying them securely 
with cords, fastens them behind his own saddle, declaring, with 
a triumphant laugh, that we shall return that evening to the 
city of Beyrout with such game as few sportsmen can boast of 
having carried thither in one day." 

The gentle nature of the Gazelle is as proverbial as its grace 
and swiftness, and is well expressed in the large, soft, liquid eye, 
which has formed from time immemorial the stock comparison 
of Oriental poets when describing the eyes of beauty. 




TIIK GAZELLE. 



THK PYQABO. 171 



THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX. 



I'he Dislion or Dyshon — Signification of the word Pygarg — Certainty that tlie 
Dishon is an antelope, and that it must be one of a few species — Fonner and 
present range of the Addax — Description of the Addax 



There is a species of animal mentioned once in the Scrip- 
tures under the name of Dishon which the Jewish Bible, leaves 
untranslated, and merely gives as Dyshon, and which is rendered 
in the Septuagint by Pugargos, or Pygarg, as one version gives 
it. Now, the meaning of the word Pygarg is white-crouped, 
and for that reason the Pygarg of the Scriptures is usually held 
to be one of the white-crouped antelopes, of which several 
species are known. Perhaps it may be one of them — it may 
possibly be neither, and it may probably refer to all of them. 

But that an antelope of some kind is meant by the word 
Dishon is evident enough, and it is also evident that the Dishon 
must have been one of the antelopes which could be obtained 
by the Jews. Now as the species of antelope which could have 
furnished food for that nation are very few in number, it is clear 
that, even if we do not hit upon the exact species, we may be 
sure of selecting an animal that was closely allied to it. More- 
over, as the nomenclature is exceedingly loose, it is probable 
that more than one species might have been included in the 
word Dishon. 

Modern commentators have agreed that there is every pro- 
bability that the Dishon of the Pentateuch was the antelope 
known by the name of Addax. 

This handsome antelope is a native of Northern Africa. It 
has a very wide range, and, even at the present day, is found in 
the vicinity of Palestine, so that it evidently was one of the 
antelopes which could be killed by Jewish hunters. From its 



172 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



large size, and long twisted horns, it bears a strong resemblance 
to the Koodoo of Southern Africa. The horns, however, are not 
so long, nor so boldly twisted, the curve being comparatively 
slight, and not possessing the bold spiral shape which distin- 
sruishes those of the koodoo. 







THE ADDAX. 



The ordinary height of the Addax is three feet seven or eight 
inches, and the horns are almost exactly alike in the two sexes. 
Their length, from the head to the tips, is rather more than two 
feet. Its colour is mostly white, but a thick mane of dark black 
hair falls from the throat, a patch of similar hair grows on the 
forehead, and the back and shoulders are greyish brown. There 
is no mane on the back of the neck, as is the case with the 
koodoo. 

The Addax is a sand-loving animal, as is shown by the wide 
ami spreading hoofs, which afford it a firm footing on the yielding 



THE FALLOW-DEER 173 

soil. In all probability, this is one of the animals which would be 
taken, like the wild bull, in a net, being surrounded and driven 
into the toils by a number of hunters. It is not, however, one of 
the gregarious species, and is not found in those vast herds in 
which some of the antelopes love to assemble. 




THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE. 

The word Jachmur evidently represents a species of antelope — Resemblance of the 
auimal to the ox tribe — Its ox -like horns and mode of attack — Its capability 
of domestication — Former and present range of the Bubale— Its representation 
on the monuments of ancient Egyjit — Delicacy of its flesh— Size and general 
appearance of the animal. 

It has already been Ynentioned that in the Old Testament 
there occur the names of three or four animals, which clearly 
belong to one or other of three or four antelopes. Only 
one of these names now remains to be identified. This is 
the Jachmur, or Yachmur, a word which has been rendered in 
the Septuagint as Boubalos, and has been translated in oui 
Authorized Version as Fallow Deer. 



174 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

We shall presently see that the Fallow Deer is to be identified 
with another animal, and that the word Jachmur must find 
another interpretation. If we follow the Septuagint, and call 
it the BuBALE, we shall identify it with a well-known antelope, 
called by the Arabs the *' Bekk'r-el-Wash," and known to 
zoologists as the Bubale {Acronotus htibalis). 

This fine antelope would scarcely be recognised as such by 
an unskilled observer, as in its general appearance it much more 
resembles the ox tribe than the antelope. Indeed, the Arabic 
title, " Bekk'r-el-Wash," or Wild Cow, shows how close must be 
the resemblance to the oxen. The Arabs, and indeed all the 
Orientals in whose countries it lives, believe it not to be an ante- 
lope, but one of the oxen, and class it accordingly. 

How much the appearance of the Bubale justifies them in 
this opinion may be judged by reference to the figure on page 
143. The horns are thick, short, and heavy, and are first 
inclined forwards, and then rather suddenly bent backwards. 
This formation of the horns causes the Bubale to use his weapons 
after the manner of the bull, thereby increasing the resemblance 
between them. When it attacks, the Bubale lowers its head to 
the ground, and as soon as its antagonist is within reach, tosses 
its head violently upwards, or swings it with a sidelong upward 
blow. In either case, the sharp curved horns, impelled by the 
powerful neck of the animal, and assisted by the weight of the 
large head, become most formidable weapons. 

It is said that in some places, where the Bub ales have learned 
to endure the presence of man, they will mix with his herds for 
the sake of feeding with them, and by degrees become so accus- 
tomed to the companionship of their domesticated friends, that 
they live with the herd as if they had belonged to it all their 
lives. This fact shows that the animal possesses a gentle dis- 
positibn, and it is said to be as easily tamed as the gazelle 
itself. 

Even at the present day the Bubale has a very wide range, 
and formerly had in all probability a much wider. It is indi- 
genous to Barbary, and has continued to spread itself over the 
greater part of Northern Africa, including the borders of the 
Sahara, the edges of the cultivated districts, an(? up the Kile 
for no small distance. In former days it was ev lently a tole- 
rably common animal of chase in Upper Egypt as there are 



THE FALLOW DEER. 



175 



representations of it on the monuments, drawn with the quaint 
truthfulness which distinguishes the monumental sculpture of 
that period. 




THE 3UBALE. OR FALLOW-DEER OF SCRIPTURE. 



It is probable that in and about Palestine it was equally 
common, so that there is good reason why it should be specially 
named as one of the animals that w^ere lawful food. Not only w^as 
its flesh permitted to be eaten, but it was evidently considered 
as a great dainty, inasmuch as t]je Jachniur is mentioned in 
1 Kings iv. 23 as one of the animals which were brought to 
the royal table. "Harts and Koebucks and Fallow-Deer" are 
the wild animals mentioned in the passage alluded to. 





Importance of Sheep in the Bible 
The Sheep the chief wealth of the 
pastoral tribes — Arab shepherds of the present day — Wander- 
ings of the flocks in search of food — Value of the wells — How 
the Sheep are watered — The shepherd usually apart owner of the flocks — Struc- 
ture of the sheepfolds — The rock caverns of Palestine — David's adventure with 
Saul — Use of the dogs — The broad-tailed Sheep, and its peculiarities. 

We now come to a subject which will necessarily occupy us for 
some little time. 

There is, perhaps, no animal which occupies a larger space in 
the Scriptures than the Sheep. Whether in religious, civil, or 
176 



THE SHEEP. 177 

rlomestic life, we find that the Sheep is bound up with the 
Jewish nation in a way that would seoni almost incomprehen- 
sible, did we not recall the light which the New Testament 
throws upon the Old, and the many allusions to the coming 
Messiah under the figure of the Lamb that taketh away the sins 
of <\\Q world. 

In treating of the Sheep, it will be perhaps advisable to 
begin the account by taking the animal simply as one of those 
creatures which have been domesticated from time immemorial, 
dwelling slightly on tliose points on which the sheep-owners of 
the old days differed from those of our own time. 

The only claim to the land seems, in the old times of the 
Scriptures, to have lain in cultivation, or perhaps in the land 
immediately surrounding a well. But any one appears to have 
taken a piece of ground and cultivated it, or to have dug a well 
wherever he chose, and thereby to have acquired a sort of right 
to the soil. The same custom prevails at the present day among 
the cattle-breeding races of Southern Africa. The banks of 
rivers, on account of their superior fertility, were considered as 
the property of the chiefs who lived along their course, but the 
inland soil was free to all. 

Had it not been for this freedom of the land, it would have 
been impossible for the great men to have nourished the enor- 
mous flocks and herds of which their wealth consisted ; but, on 
account of the lack of ownership of the soil, a flock could be 
moved to one district after another as fast as it exhausted the 
herbage, the shepherds thus unconsciously imitating the habits 
of the gregarious animals, which are always on the move from 
one spot to another. 

Pasturage being thus free to all. Sheep had a higher compara- 
tive value than is the case with ourselves, who have to pay in 
some way for their keep. There is a proverb in the Talmud 
which may be curtly translated, " Land sell, sheep buy." 

The value of a good pasture-ground for the flocks is so great, 
that its possession is well worth a battle, the shepherds being 
saved from a most weary and harassing life, and being moreovei 
fewer in number than is needed when the pasturage is scanty 
Sir S. Baker, in his work on Abyssinia, makes some very inter- 
esting remarks upon the Arab herdsmen, who are placed in 
conditions very similar to those of the Israelitish shepherds 
8* 



178 



STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



*•' The Arabs are creatures of necessity ; their nomadic life is 
compulsory, as the existence of their flocks and herds depends 
upon the pasturage. Thus, with the change of seasons they 
must change their localities according to the presence of fodder 
for their cattle. . . . The Arab cannot halt in one spot longer 
than the pasturage will support his flocks. The object of his 
life being fodder, he must wander in search of the ever-changing 




ABABS JOURNilYING TO FRESH PASTURES. 



supply. His wants must be few, as the constant change of en- 
campment necessitates the transport of all his household goods ; 
thus he reduces to a minimum his domestic furniture and 
utensils. . , . 

" This striking similarity to the descriptions of the Old Testa- 
ment is exceedingly interesting to a traveller when residing 
among these curious and original people. With the Bible in 
one's hand, and these unchanged tribes before the eyes, there is a 
thrilling illustration of the sacred record ; the past becomes the 
present, the veil of three thousand years is raised, and the living 



THE SHEEP. 



179 



picture is a witness to the exactness of the historical descrip- 
tion. At the same time there is a light thrown upon many 
obscure passages in the Old Testament by the experience of the 
present customs and figures of speech of the Arabs, which are 

precisely those that were practised at the periods described 

" Should the present history of the country be written by an 
Arab scribe, the style of the description would be precisely 
that of the Old Testament. There is a fascination in the 




VIEW OF THE PYRAMIDS. 



unchangeable features of the Nile regions. There are the vast 
pyramids that have defied time, the river upon which Moses was 
cradled in infancy, the same sandy desert through which he led 
his people, and the watering-places where their flocks were led 
to drink. The wild and wandering Arabs, who thousands of 
years ago dug out the wells in the wilderness, are represented by 
their descendants, unchanged, who now draw water from the 
deep wells of their forefathers, with the skins that haVe never 
altered their fashion. 

" The Arabs, gathering with their goats and sheep around the 



180 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

wells to-day, recall the recollection of that distant time when 
' Jacob went on his journey, and came into the land of the 
people of the east. And he looked, and behold a well in the 
field, and lo ! there were three flocks of sheep lying by it,' &c. 
The picture of that scene would be an illustration of Arab daily 
life in the Nubian deserts, where the present is a mirror of the 
past." 

Owing to the great number of Sheep which they have to 
tend, and the peculiar state of the country, the life of the shep- 
herd in Palestine is even now very different from that of an 
English shepherd, and in the days of the early Scriptures the 
distinction was even more distinctly marked. 

Sheep had to be tended much more carefully than we gene- 
rally think. In the first place, a thoughtful shepherd had always 
one idea before his mind, — namely, the possibility of obtaining 
sufficient water for his flocks. Even pasturage is less important 
than water, and, however tempting a district might be, no shep- 
herd would venture to take his charge there if he were not sui'e 
of obtaining water. In a climate such as ours, this ever-pressing 
anxiety respecting water can scarcely be appreciated, for in hot 
climates not only is water scarce, but it is needed far more than 
in a temperate and moist climate. Thirst does its work with 
terrible quickness, and there are instances recorded where men 
have sat down and died of thirst in sight of the river which 
they had not strength to reach. 

In places therefore through which no stream runs, the wells 
are the great centres of pasturage, around which are to be seen 
vast flocks extending far in every direction. These wells are 
kept carefully closed by their owners, and are only opened for 
the use of those who are entitled to water their flocks at 
them. 

Noontide is the general time for watering the Sheep, and 
towards that hour all the flocks may be seen converging towards 
their respective wells, the shepherd at the head of each flock, and 
the Sheep following him. See how forcible becomes the imagery 
of David, the shepherd poet, " The Lord is my Shepherd ; I shall 
not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures (or, in 
pastures of tender grass) : He leadeth me beside the still waters " 
(Ps. xxiii. 1, 2). Here we have two of the principal duties of 
the good shepherd brought prominently before us, — namely, the 



THE SHEEP. 181 

giiiding of the Sheep to green pastures and leading them to fresh 
water. Very many references are made in the Scriptures to the 
pasturage of sheep, both in a technical and a metaphorical sense ; 
but as our space is limited, and these passages are very nume- 
rous, only one or two of each will be taken. 

In the story of Joseph, we find that when his father and 
brothers were suffering from the famine, they si'cni to have cared 
as much for their Sheep and cattle as for themselves, inasmuch as 
among a pastoral people the flocks and herds constitute the only 
wealth. So, wdien Joseph at last discovered himself, and his 
family were admitted to the favour of Pharaoh, the first request 
which they made was for their flocks. " Pharaoh said unto his 
brethren, What is your occupation ? And they said unto 
Pharaoh, Thy servants are shepherds, both we, and also our 
fathers. 

" They said moreover unto Pharaoh, For to sojourn in the land 
are we come ; for thy servants have no pasture for their flocks ; 
for the famine is sore in the land of Canaan : now therefore, we 
pray thee, let thy servants dwell in the land of Goshen." 

This one incident, so slightly remarked in the sacred history, 
gives a wonderfully clear notion of the sort of life led by Jacob 
and his sons. Forming, according to custom, a small tribe of 
their own, of which the father was the chief, they led a pastoral 
life, taking their continually increasing herds and flocks from 
place to place as they could find food for them. For example, at 
the memorable time when the story of Joseph begins, he was 
sent by his father to his brothers, who were feeding the flocks, 
and he wandered about for some time, not knowing where to 
find them. It may seem strange that he should be unable to 
discover such very conspicuous objects as large flocks of sheep 
and goats, but the fact is that they had been driven from one 
pasture-land to another, and had travelled in search of food all 
the way from Shechem to Dothan. 

In 1 Chron. iv. 39, 40, we read of the still pastoral Israelities 
that " they went to the entrance of Gedor, even unto the east 
side of the valley, to seek pasture for their flocks. And they 
found fat pasture and good, and the land was wide, and quiet, 
and peaceable." 

How it came to be quiet and peaceable is told in the context. 
It was peaceable simply because the Israelites were attracted by 



182 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



the good pasturage, attacked the original inhabitants, and exter- 
minated them so effectually that none were left to offer resistance 
to the usurpers. And we find from this passage that the value 
of good pasture-land where the Sheep could feed continually 
without being forced to wander from one spot to another was 
so considerable, that the owners of the flocks engaged in war, 
and exposed their own lives, in order to obtain so valuable a 
possession. 




JACOB MEETS RACHEL AT THE WELL. 



We will now look at one or two of the passages that mentior 
watering the Sheep — a duty so imperative on an Oriental shep- 
herd, and so needless to our own. 

In the first place we find that most graphic narrative which 
occurs in Gen. xxix. to which a passing reference has already 
been made. When Jacob was on his way from his parents to 
the home of Laban in Padan-aram, he came upon the very well 
which belonged to his uncle, and there saw three flocks of Sheep 
lying around the well, waiting until the proper hour arrived. 
According to custom, a large stone was laid over the well, so as 
to perform the double office of keepiug out the sand and dust, 
and of guarding the precious water against those who had no 
right to it. And when he saw his cousin Kachel arrive with 




EASTERN SHEPHERD WATCHING HIS FLOCK. 



184 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the flock of which she had the management, he, according to the 
courtesy of the country and the time, rolled away the ponderous 
barrier, and poured out water into the troughs for the Sheep 
which Eachel tended. 

About two hundred years afterwards, we find Moses per- 
forming a similar act. When he was obliged to escape into 
Midian on account of his fatal quarrel with a tyrannical 
Egyptian, he sat down by a well, waiting for the time when the 
stone might be rolled away, and the water be distributed Now 
it happened that this well belonged to Jethro, the chief priest of 
the country, whose wealth consisted principally of Sheep. He 
entrusted his flock to the care of his seven daughters, who led 
their Sheep to the well and drew water as usual into the troughs. 
Presuming on their weakness, other shepherds came and tried 
to drive them away, but were opposed by Moses, who drove 
them away, and with his own hands watered the flock. 

Now in both these examples we find that the men who 
performed the courteous office of drawing the water and pouring 
it into the sheep-troughs married afterwards the girl to whose 
charge the flocks had been committed. This brings us to the 
Oriental custom which has been preserved to the present day. 

The wells at which the cattle are watered at noon-day are the 
meeting-places of the tribe, and it is chiefly at the well that the 
young men and women meet each other. As each successive 
flock arrives at the well, the number of the people increases, 
and while the sheep and goats lie patiently round the water, 
waiting for the time when the last flock shall arrive, and the 
stone be rolled off the mouth of the well, the gossip of the tribe 
is discussed, and the young people have ample opportunity for 
the pleasing business of courtship. 

As to the passages in which the wells, rivers, brooks, water- 
springs, are spoken of in a metaphorical sense, they are too 
numerous to be quoted. 

And here I may observe, that in reality the whole of Scripture 
has its sj'mbolical as well as its outward signification ; and that, 
until we have learned to read the Bible strictly according to the 
spirit, we cannot understand one-thousandth part of the mys- 
teries which it conceals behind its veil of language ; nor can we 
appreciate one-thousandth part of the treasures of wisdom which 
lie hidden in its pages 



THE SHEEP. 



J 85 



Another duty of the shepherd of ancient Palestine was tc 
guard his flock from depredators, wliether man or beast. 
Therefore the shepherd was forced to carry arms ; to act as a 
sentry during the night; and, in fact, to be a- sort of irregular 
soldier. A fully-armed shepherd had with him his bow, his 
spear, and his sword, and not even a shepherd lad was without 
his sling and the great quarter-staff which is even now universall}' 
carried by the tribes along the Nile — a staff as thick as a man's 
wrist, and six or seven feet in length. He was skilled in the 
use of all these weapons, especially in that of the sling. 

In these days, the sling is only considered as a mere toy, 
whereas, before the introduction of fire-arms, it was one of the 
most formidable weapons that could be wielded by light troops. 
Round and smooth stones weighing three or four ounces were 
the usual projectiles, and, by dint of constant practice from 
childhood, the slingers could aim with a marvellous precision. 




DAVID GATHERS STONES FROM Till': RKOOK TO C 



AT (.OI.IATH. 



Of this fact we have a notable instance in David, who knew 
that the sling and the five stones in the hand of an active youth 
unencumbered by armour, and wearing merely the shepherd's 



186 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



simple tunic, were more than a match for all the ponderous 
weapons of the gigantic Philistine. 

It has sometimes been the fashion to attribute the successful 
aim of David to a special miracle, whereas those who are 
acquainted with ancient weapons know well that no miracle was 
wrought, because none was needed ; a good slinger at that time 
being as sure of his aim as a good rifleman of our days. 

The sling was in constant requisition, being used both in 
directing the Sheep and in repelling enemies : a stone skilfully 
thrown in front of a straying Sheep being a well-understood 
signal that the animal had better retrace its steps if it did not 
want to feel the next stone on its back. 




Alf EASTERN SHEPHERD. 



Passing his whole life with his flock, the shepherd was iden- 
tified with his Sheep far more than is the case in this country. 
He knew all his Sheep by sight, he called them all by their 
names, and they all knew him and recognised his voice. He 
did not drive them, but he led them, walking in their front, 
and they following him. Sometimes he w^ould play with them, 
pretending to run away while they pursued him, exactly as an 
infJint-school teacher plays with the children. 



THE SHEEP. 



187 



Consequently, they looked upon him as their protector as 
well as their feeder, and were sure to follow wherever he led 
them. 

We must all remember how David, who had passed all his 
early years as a slioplierd, speaks of God as the Shepherd of 




SHEEP FOLLOWING THEIR SHEPHERD. 



Israel, and the people as Sheep ; never mentioning the Sheep as 
being driven, but always as being led. " Thou leddest Thy 
people like a flock, by the hands of Moses and Aaron " (Ps. 
Ixxvii. 20) ; " The Lord is my Shepherd. ... He leadeth me 
beside the still waters" (Ps. xxiii. 1, 2); "Lead me in a plain 
path, because of mine enemies" (Ps. xxvii. 11); together with 
many other passages too numerous to be quoted. 

Our Lord Himself makes a familiar use of the same image : 
" He calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out 
And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goetli before them, 
and the sheep follow him : for they know his voice. 



188 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Although the shepherds of our own country know their Sheep 
by sight, and say that there is as much difference in the faces 
of .Sheep as of men, they have not, as a rule, attained the art oi 
teaching their Sheep to recognise their names. This custom, 
however, is still retained, as may be seen from a well-known 
passage in Hartley's " Researches in Greece and the Levant : " — 

" Having had my attention directed last night to the words in 
John X. 3, I asked my man if it were usual in Greece to give 
names to the sheep. He informed me that it was, and that 
the sheep obeyed the shepherd when he called them by their 
names. This morning I had an opportunity of verifying the 
truth of this remark. Passing hy a flock of sheep, I asked the 
shepherd the same question which I had put to the servant, and 
he gave me the same answer. T then bade him call one of his 
sheep. He did so, and it instantly left its pasturage and its 
companions, and ran up to the hands of the shepherd, with 
signs of pleasure, and with a prompt obedience which I had never 
before observed in any other animal. 

" It is also true that in this country, ' a stranger will they not 
follow, but will flee from him.' The shepherd told me that 
many of his sheep were still wild, that they had not learned 
their names, but that by teaching them they would all learn 
them." 

Generally, the shepherd was either the proprietor of the flock, 
or had at all events a share in it, of which latter arrangement 
we find a well-known example in the bargain which Jacob made 
with Laban, all the white Sheep belonging to his father-in-law, 
and all the dark and spotted Sheep being his wages as shepherd. 
Such a man was far more likely to take care of the Sheep than 
if he were merely a paid labourer ; especially in a country where 
the life of a shepherd was a life of actual danger, and he might at 
any time be obliged to fight against armed robbers, or to oppose 
the wolf, the lion, or the bear. The combat of the shepherd 
l)avid with the last-mentioned animals has already been 
noticed. 

In allusion to the continual risks run by the Oriental shepherd, 
our Lord makes use of the following well-known words : — " The 
thief Cometh not but for to steal, and to kill, and to destroy : I 
am come that they might have life, and have it more abundantly. 
I am the Good Shepherd : the good shepherd giveth his life foi 



THE SHEEP. 189 

the sheep. But he that is an hireling, .... whose own the 
sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep, 
and fleeth : and the wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the 
sheep. The hireling fleeth because he is an hireling, and careth 
not for the she( p." 

Owing to the continual moving of the Sheep, the shepherd 
had very hard work during the lambing time, and was obliged 
to carry in his arms the young lambs which were too feeble to 
accompany their parents, and to keep close to him those Sheep 
who were expected soon to become mothers. At that time of 
year the shepherd might constantly be seen at the head of his 
flock, carrying one or two lambs in his arms, accompanied by 
their mothers. 

In allusion to this fact Isaiah writes : " His reward is with 
liim, and His work before Him. He shall feed His flock like 
a shepherd ; He shall gather the lambs with His arms and carry 
them in His bosom, and shall gently lead them that are with 
young " (or, " that give suck," according to the marginal reading). 
Here we have presented at once before us the good shepherd 
who is no hireling, but owns the Sheep ; and who therefore has 
" his reward with him, and his work before him ; " who bears 
the tender lambs in his arms, or lays them in the folds of his 
mantle, and so carries them in his bosom, and leads by his side 
their yet feeble mothers. 

Frequent mention is made of the folds in which the Sheep are 
penned ; and as these folds differed — and still differ — materially 
from those of our own land, we shall miss the force of several 
passages of Scripture if we do not understand their form, and the 
materials of which they were built. Our folds consist merely of 
hurdles, moveable at pleasure, and so low that a man can easily 
jump over them, and so fragile that he can easily pull them 
down. Moreover, the Sheep are frequently enclosed within the 
fold while they are at pasture. 

If any one should entertain such an idea of the Oriental fold, 
he would not see the force of the well-known passage in which 
our Lord compares the Church to a sheepfold, and Himself to 
the door. " He that entereth not by the door into the sheepfold, 
but climbeth up some other way, the same is a thief and a 
robber. But he that entereth in by the door is the shepherd of 
thu sheep. To him the porter openeth, and the sheep hear his 



190 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



voice. . . . All that ever came before me are thieves and robbers : 
but the sheep did not hear them. I am the door : by me if any 
man enter in, he shall be saved, and shall go in and out, and 
find pasture." 




ANCIEKT SHEEP PEN, 



Had the fold here mentioned been a simple enclosure of 
hurdles, such an image could not have been used. It is evident 
that the fold to which allusion was made, and which was pro- 
bably in sight at the time when Je.ms was disputing with 
the Pharisees, was a structure of some pretensions; that it 
had walls which a thief could only enter by climbing over 
them — not by " breaking through " them, as in the case of a 
miid- walled private house ; and that it had a gate, which was 
guarded by a watchman. 

In fact, the fold was a solid and enduring building, made of 
stone. Thus in ITumbers xxxii. it is related that the tribes of 
Eeuben and Gad, who had great quantities of Sheep and othei 



THE SHEEP. 191 

cattle, asked for the eastward side of Jordan as a pasture- 
ground, promising to go and fight for the people, but previously 
to build fortified cities for their families, and folds for their 
cattle, the folds being evidently, like the cities, buildings of an 
enduring nature. 

In some places the folds are simply rock caverns, partly natural 
and partly artificial, often enlarged by a stone wall built outside 
it. It was the absence of these rock caverns on the east side of 
Jordan that compelled the Efeubenites and Gadites to build folds 
for themselves, whereas on the opposite side places of refuge were 
comparatively abundant. 

See, for example, the well-known history related in 1 Sam. 
xxiii. xxiv. David and his miscellaneous band of warriors, 
some six hundred in number, were driven out of the cities by 
the fear of Saul, and were obliged to pass their time in the 
wilderness, living in the " strong holds " (xxiii. 14, 19), which V7(^. 
find immediately afterwards to be rock caves (ver. 25). These 
caves were of large extent, being able to shelter these six 
hundred warriors, and, on one memorable occasion, to conceal 
them so completely as they stood along the sides, that Saul, who 
had just come out of the open air, was not able to discern them 
in the dim light, and David even managed to approach him 
unseen, and cut off a portion of his outer robe. 

That this particular cave was a sheepfold we learn from 
xxiv. 2-4 : "Then Saul took three thousand chosen men 
out of all Israel, and went to seek David and his men upon the 
rocks of the wild goats. And he came to the sheepcotes by 
the way." Into these strongholds the Sheep are driven towards 
nightfall, and, as the flocks converge towards their resting-place, 
the bleatings of the sheep are almost deafening. 

The shepherds as well as their flocks found shelter in these 
caves, making them their resting-places while they were living 
the strange, wild, pastoral life among the hills; and at the 
present day many of the smaller caves and " holes of the rock " 
exhibit the vestiges of human habitation in the shape of straw, 
hay, and other dried herbage, which has been used for beds, just 
as we now find the rude couches of the coast-guard men in the 
cliff caves of our shores. 

The dogs which are attached to the sheepfolds were, as they 
are now, the faithful servants of man, although, as has already 



192 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

been related, they are not made the companions of man as is 
the case with ourselves. Lean, gaunt, hungry, and treated with 
but scant kindness, they are yet faithful guardians against the 
attack of enemies. They do not, as do our sheepdogs, assist in 
driving the flocks, because the Sheep are not driven, but led, but 
they are invaluable as nocturnal sentries. Crouching together 
outside the fold, in little knots of six or seven together, they 
detect the approach of wild animals, and at the first sign of the 
wolf or the jackal they bark out a Uefiance, and scare away the 
invaders. It is strange that the old superstitious idea of their 
uncleanness should have held its ground through so many tens 
of centuries ; but, down to the present day, the shepherd of 
Palestine, though making use of the dog as a guardian of his 
flock, treats the animal with utter contempt, not to say cruelty, 
beating and kicking the faithful creature on the least provoca- 
tion, and scarcely giving it sufficient food to keep it alive. 

Sometimes the Sheep are brought up by hand at home. 
" Hause-lamb," as we call it, is even now common, and the 
practice of house-feeding peculiar in the old Scriptural times. 

We have an allusion to this custom in the well-known parable 
of the prophet Nathan : " The poor man had nothing, save one 
little ewe lamb, which he had bought and nourished up : and it 
grew up together with him, and with his children ; it did eat of 
his own meat, and drank of his own cup, and lay in his bosom, 
and was unto him as a daughter" (2 Sam. xii. 3). A further 
though less distinct, allusion is made to this practice in Isaiah 
vii. 21 : "It shall come to pass in that day, that a man shall 
nourish a young cow, and two sheep." 

How the Sheep thus brought up by hand were fattened may 
be conjectured from the following passage in Mr. D. Urquhart's 
valuable work on the Lebanon : — 

" In the month of June, they buy from the shepherds, when 
pasturage has become scarce and sheep are cheap, two or three, 
sheep ; these they feed by hand. After they have eaten up the 
old grass and the provender about the doors, they get vine 
leaves, and, after the silkworms have begun to spin, mulberry 
leaves. They purchase them on trial, and the test is appetite. 
If a sheep does not feed well, they return it after three days. 
To increase their appetite they wash them twice a day, morning 
and evening, a care they never bestow on their own bodies. 




THF, POOR MAN'S LAMB. 




The rich bIaN S FEa.->i 



194 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. ^ 

" If the sheep's appetite does not come up to their standard, 
they use a little gentle violence, folding for them forced leaf-balls 
and introducing them into their mouths. The mulberry has the 
property of making them fat and tender. At the end of four 
months the sheep they had bought at eighty piastres will sell 
for one hundred and forty, or will realize one hundred and fifty. 

" The sheep is killed, skinned, and hung up. The fat is then 
removed ; the flesh is cut from the bones, and hung up in the^ 
sun. Meanwhile, the fat has been put in a cauldron on the fire, 
and as soon as it has come to boil, the meat is laid on. The 
pioportion of the fat to the lean is as four to ten, eight *okes' 
fat and twenty lean. A little salt is added, it is simmered for 
an hour, and then placed in jars for the use of the family during 
the year. 

" The large joints are separated and used first, as not fit for 
keeping long. The fat, with a portion of the lean, chopped fine, 
is what serves for cooking the ' bourgoul,' and is called Dehen. 
The sheep are of the fat-tailed variety, and the tails are the 
great delicacy." 

This last sentence reminds us that there are two breeds of 
Sheep in Palestine. One much resembles the ordinary English 
Sheep, while the other is a very difierent animal. It is much 
taller on its legs, larger-boned, and long-nosed. Only the 
rams have hornfe, and they are not twisted spirally like those 
of our own Sheep, but come backwards, and then curl round so 
that the point comes under the ear. The great peculiarity of 
this Sheep is the tail, which is simply prodigious in point of size, 
and is an enormous mass of fat. Indeed, the long-legged and 
otherwise lean animal seems to concentrate all its fat in the tail, 
which, as has been well observed, appears to abstract both flesh 
and fat from the rest of the body. So great is this strange 
development, that the tail alone will sometimes weigh one-fifth 
as much as the entire animal A similar breed of Sheep is found 
in Southern Africa and other parts of the world. In some places, 
the tail grows to such an enormous size that, in order to keep 
so valuable a part of the animal from injury, it is fastened to 
a small board, supported by a couple of wheels, so that the Sheep 
literally wheels its own tail in a cart. 

Frequent reference to the fat of the tail is made in the 
Authorized Version of the Scriptures, though in terms which 



THE SHEEP. 



196 




FLOCKS OF SHEEP BEING TAKEN INTO JERUSALEM. 



would not be understood did we not know that the Sheep 
which is mentioned in those passages is the long-tailed 
Sheep of Syria. See, for example, the history narrated in 
Exod. xxix. 22, where special details are given as to the 
ceremony by which Aaron and his sons were consecrated 
to the priesthood. " Thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the 
rump, and the fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul above 
the liver, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them." 

Though this particular breed is not very distinctly men- 
tioned in the Bible, the Talmudical writers have many allusions 
to it. In the Mischna these broad-tailed Sheep are not allowed 
to leave their folds on the Sabbath-day, because by whe<3ling 
their Httle tail-waggons behind them they would break the 
Sabbath. The writers describe the tail very graphically, com- 
paring its shape to that of a saddle, and saying that it is fat, 
without bones, heavy and long, and looks as if the whole body 
were continued beyond the hind-legs, and thence hung down in 
place of a tail. 

The Eabbinical writers treat rather fuUy of the Sheep, and 



196 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

give some very amusing advice respecting their management. 
If the ewes cannot be fattened in the ordinary manner, that end 
may be achieved by tying up the udder so that the milk cannot 
flow, and the elements which would have furnished milk are 
forced to produce fat. If the weather should be chilly at the 
shearing time, and there is danger of taking cold after the wool 
is removed, the shepherd should dip a sponge in oil and tie it 
on the forehead of the newly-shorn animal. Or, if he should 
not have a sponge by him, a woollen rag will do as well. ' The 
same potent remedy is also efficacious if the Sheep should be iU 
in lambing time. 

That the Sheep is liable to the attack of the gadfly, which 
deposits its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal, 
was as well known in the ancient as in modern times. It is 
scarcely necessary to mention that the insect in question is 
the j^strus ovis. Instinctively aware of the presence of this 
insidious and dreaded enemy, which, though so apparently 
insignificant, is as formidable a foe as any of the beasts of 
prey, the Sheep display the greatest terror at the sharp, 
menacing sound produced by the gadfly's wings as the insect 
sweeps through the air towards its destination. They congre- 
gate together, placing their heads almost in contact with each 
other, snort and paw the ground in their terror, and use all means 
in their power to prevent the fly from accomplishing its purpose. 

When a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim, it rapidly 
deposits an egg or two in the nostril, and then leaves them. 
The tiny eggs are soon hatched by the natural heat of the 
animal, and the young larvae crawl up the nostril towards the 
frontal sinus. There they remain until they are full-grown, when 
they crawl through the nostrils, faU on the ground, burrow 
therein, and in the earth undergo their changes into the pupal 
and perfect stages. 

It need hardly be said that an intelligent shepherd would 
devote himself to the task of killing every gadfly which he 
could find, and, as these insects are fond of basking on sunny 
rocks or tree-trunks, this is no very difficult matter. 

The Eabbinical writers, however, being totally ignorant of 
practical entomology, do not seem to have recognised the insect 
until it had reached its full larval growth. They say that the 
rams manage to shake the grubs out of their nostrils by butting 



THE SHEEP. 197 

at one another in mimic warfare, and that the ewes, which are 
hornless, and are therefore incapable of relieving themselves 
by such means, ought to be supplied with plants which wiU 
make them sneeze, so that they may shake out the grubs by 
the convulsive jerkings of the head caused by inhaling the 
irritating substance. 

The same writers also recommend that the rams should be 
furnished with strong leathern collars. 

When the flock is on the march, the rams always go in the 
van, and, being instinctively afraid of their ancient enemy the 
wolf, they continually raise their heads and look about them. 
This line of conduct irritates the wolves, who attack the fore- 
most rams and seize them by the throat. If, therefore, a piece 
of stout leather be fastened round the ram's neck, the wolf is 
baffled, and runs off in sullen despair. 

Generally, the oldest ram is distinguished by a bell, and, when 
the flock moves over the hilly slopes, the Sheep walk in file after 
the leader, making n-arrow paths, which are very distinct from a 
distance, but are scarcely perceptible when the foot of the 
traveller is actually upon them. From this habit has arisen an 
ancient proverb, " As the sheep after the sheep, so the daughter 
after the mother," a saying which is another form of our own 
famiKar proverb, " What is bred in the bone will not come out 
of the flesh." 

We now come to the Sheep considered with reference to its 
uses. First and foremost the Sheep was, and still is, one of the 
chief means of subsistence, being to the pastoral inhabitants of 
Palestine what the oxen are to the pastoral inhabitants of 
Southern Africa. 

To ordinary persons the flesh of the Sheep was a seldom- 
tasted luxury ; great men might eat it habitually, " faring 
sumptuously every day," and we find that, among the glories of 
Solomon's reign, the sacred chronicler has thought it worth while 
to mention that part of the daily provision for his household 
included one hundred Sheep. No particular pains seem to have 
been taken about the cooking of the animal, which seems gene- 
rally to have been boiled. As, however, in such a climate the 
flesh could not be kept for the purpose of making it tender, as is 
the case in this part of the world, it was cooked as soon a^ the 



198 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

animal was killed, the fibres not having time to settle into the 
rigidity of death. 

Generally, when ordinary people had the opportunity of 
tasting the flesh of the Sheep, it was on the occasion of somr 
rejoicing, — such, for example, as a marriage feast, or the advent of 
a guest, for whom a lamb or a kid was slain and cooked on the 
spot, a young male lamb being almost invariably chosen as less 
injurious than the ewe to the future prospects of the flock. 
Eoasting over a fire was sometimes adopted, as was baking in an 
oven sunk in the ground, a remarkable instance of which we 
shall see when we come to the Jewish sacrifices. Boiling, 
however, was the principal mode ; so much so, indeed, that the 
Hebrew word which signifies boiling is used to signify any kind 
of cooking, even when the meat was roasted. 

The process of cooking and eating the Sheep was as foUows. 

The animal having been killed according to the legal form, the 
skin was stripped off, and the body separated joint from joint, 
the right shoulder being first removed. This, it will be remem- 
bered, was the priest's portion ; see Lev. vii. 32 : " The right 
shoulder shall ye give unto the priest for an heave offering of the 
sacrifices of your peace offerings." • The whole of the flesh was 
then separated from the bones, and chopped small, and even the 
bones themselves broken up, so that the marrow might not 
be lost. 

A reference to this custom is found in Micah iii. 2, 3, " Who 
pluck off their skin from off them, and their flesh from off their 
bones ; who also eat the flesh of my people .... and they break 
their bones, and chop them in pieces, as for the pot, and as flesh 
within the caldron." The reader will now understand more fully 
the force of the prophecy, " He keepeth aU His bones : not one of 
them is broken " (Psa. xxxiv. 20). 

The mixed mass of bones and flesh was then put into the 
caldron, which was generally filled with water, but sometimes 
with milk, as is the custom with the Bedouins of the present 
day, whose manners are in many respects identical with those 
of the early Jews. It has been thought by some commentators 
that the injunction not to " seethe a kid in his mother's milk " 
(Deut. xiv. 21) referred to this custom. I believe, however, that 
the expression " in his mother's milk " does not signify that the 
flesh of the kid might not be boiled in its mother's milk, but 



THE SHEEP. 199 

that a kid might not be taken which was still in its mother's 
milk, i.e. unweaned. 

Salt and spices were generally added to it ; see Ezek. xxiv. 10 : 
" Heap on wood, kindle the fire, consume the flesh, and spice it 
well" The surface was carefully skimmed, and, when the meat 
was thoroughly cooked, it and the broth were served up sepa- 
rately. The latter was used as a sort of sauce, into which un- 
leavened bread was dipped. So in Judges vi. 19 we read that 
when Gideon was visited by the angel, according to the hos- 
pitable custom of the land, he " made ready a kid, and unlea- 
vened cakes of an ephah of flour : the flesh he put in a basket, 
and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him 
under the oak, and presented it to him." 

Valuable, however, as was the Sheep for this purpose, there 
has always existed a great reluctance to kill the animal, the very 
sight of the flocks being an intense gratification to a pastoral 
Oriental. The principal part of the food supplied by the Sheep 
was, and is still, the milk ; which afforded abundant food with- 
out thinning the number of the flock. As all know who have 
tasted it, the milk of the Sheep is peculiarly rich, and in the 
East is valued much more highly than that of cattle. The 
milk was seldom drunk in a fresh state, as is usually the case 
with ourselves, but was suffered to become sour, curdled, and 
semi-solid. 

We now come to a portion of the Sheep scarcely less im- 
portant than the flesh and the milk, i.e. the fleece, or wool 

In the ancient times nearly the whole of the clothing was 
made of wool, especially the most valuable part of it, namely 
the large mantle, or "haick," in which the whole person could 
be folded, and which was the usual covering during sleep. The 
wool, therefore, would be an article of great national value ; and 
so we find that when the king of Moab paid his tribute in kind 
to the king of Israel, it was carefully specified that the Sheep 
should not be shorn. " And Mesha king of Moab was a sheep- 
master, and rendered unto the king of Israel an hundred thousand 
lambs, and an hundred thousand rams, with the wool." 

The wool of the Sheep of Palestine differed extremely in value ; 
some kinds being coarse and rough, while others were fine. 



200 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The wool was dressed in those times much as it is at pre- 
sent, being carded and then spun with the spindle, the distaff 
being apparently unused, and the wool simply drawn out by the 
hand. The shape of the spindle was much like that of the well- 
known iiat spinning-tops that come from Japan — namely, a 
disc through which passes an axle. A smart twirl given by the 
fingers to the axle makes the disc revolve very rapidly, and its 
weight causes the rotation to continue for a considerable time 
Spinning the wool was exclusively the task of the women, a 
custom which prevailed in this country up to a very recent 
time, and which still traditionally survives in the term "spinster," 
and in the metaphorical use of the word "distaff" as synony- 
mous with a woman's proper work. 

When spun into threads, the wool was woven in the simple 
loom which has existed up to our own day, and which is 
identical in its general principles throughout a very large 
portion of the world. It consisted of a framework of wood, at 
one end of which was placed the "beam" to which the warp 
was attached ; and at the other end was the " pin " on which the 
cloth was rolled as it was finished. 

The reader may remember that when Delilah was cajoling 
Samson to tell her the secret of his strength, he said, " If thou 
weavest the seven locks of my head with the web." So, as he 
slept, she interwove his long hair with the fabric which was on 
her loom, and, to make sure, " fastened it with the pin," i. e. wove 
it completely into the cloth which was rolled round the pin. 
So firmly had she done so, that when he awoke he could not 
disentangle his hair, but left the house with the whole of the 
loom, the beam and the pin, and the web hanging to his head. 

Wool was often dyed of various colours ; blue, purple, and 
scarlet being those which were generally employed. The rams' 
skins which formed part of the covering of the Tabernacle were 
ordered to be dyed scarlet, partly on account of the significance 
of the colour, and partly because none but the best and purest 
fleeces would be chosen for so rare and costly a dye. How the 
colour was produced we shall learn towards the end of the 
volume. 

Sheep-shearing was always a time of great rejoicing and revelry^ 
which seem often to have been carried beyond the bounds of so- 



THE SHEEP. 201 

briety. Thus when Nabal had gathered together his three thou- 
sand Sheep in Carmel, and held a shearing festival, David sent to 
ask for some provisions for his band, and was refused in accordance 
with the disposition of the man, who had inflamed his naturally 
churlish nature with wine. "He held a feast in his house, like 
the feast of a king: and Nabal's heart was merry within him, 
for he was very drunken" (1 Sam. xxv. 36). 

The same was probably the case when Laban was shearing; his 
Sheep (Gen. xxxi. 19). Otherwise it would scarcely have been 
possible for Jacob to have gone away unknown to Laban, taking 
with him his wives and children, his servants, his camels, and 
his flocks, the rapid increase of which had excited the jealousy 
of his uncle, and which were so numerous that, in fear of his 
brother Esau, he divided them into two bands, and yet was able 
to select from them a present to his brother, consisting in all of 
nearly six hundred sheep, camels, oxen, goats, and asses. 

Sometimes the shepherds and others who Lived in pastoral 
districts made themselves coats of the skins of the Sheep, with 
the wool still adhering to it. The custom extends to the present 
day, and even in many parts of Europe the sheep-skin dress of 
the shepherds is a familiar sight to the traveller. The skin was 
sometimes tanned and used as leather, but was considered as 
inferior to that of the goat. Mr. Tristram conjectures that the 
leathern " girdle " worn by St. John the Baptist was probably the 
imtanned sheep-skin coat which has been just mentioned. So 
it is said of the early Christians, that " they wandered about in 
sheep-skins and goat-skins, being destitute, afflicted, tormented," 
the sheep-skins in question being evidently the rude shepherd's 
coats. 

The horn of the ram had a national value, as from it were 
made the sacred trumpets which played so important a part in 
the history of the Jewish nation. There is no doubt that the 
primitive trumpets were originally formed either from the horn 
of an animal, such as the ox, the large-horned antelopes, the 
sheep, and the goat, and that in process of time they were made 
of metal, generally copper or silver. 

Eeferences are frequently made in the Bible to these trumpets, 
for which there were different names, probably on account of 
their different forms. These names are, however, very loosely 



202 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



rendered in our version, the same word being sometimes trans- 
lated the " cornet," and sometimes the " trumpet." 




SOUNDING THE TRUMPETS IN THE YEAE OF JUBILEE. 



The jubilee year was always ushered in by the blasts of the 
sacred trumpets. "Then shalt thou cause the trumpet of the 
jubilee to sound on the tenth day of the seventh month, in the 
day of atonement shall ye make the trumpet sound through- 



THE SHEEP. 203 

out all your land " (Lev. xxv. 9). Theu there was the festival 
known as the Feast of Trumpets. " In the seventh month, on 
the first day of the month, ye shall have an holy convocation ; 
ye shall do no servile work : it is a day of blowing the trumpets 
unto you " (Numb. xxix. 1). 

One of these trumpets is now before me, and is shown in the 
accompanying illustration. 

In length it measures eighteen inches, i. e. a cubit, and it is 
formed entirely in one piece. As far as I can judge, it is made 
from the left horn of the broad-tailed Sheep, which, as has already 
been remarked, is not spiral, but flattish, curved backwards, ami 
forming nearly a circle, the point passing under the ear. This 
structure, added to the large size of the horn, adapts it well for 
its purpose. " In 'order to bring it to the proper shape, the horn 
is softened by heat, and is then modelled into the very form 
which was used by the Jewish priests who blew the trumpet 
before the ark. 




HAMS HORN TRUMPET. 



At the present day one such trumpet, at least, is found in 
every Jewish community, and is kept by the man who has the 
privilege of blowing it. > 

We now come to the important subject, the use of the Sheep 
in sacrifice. 

No animal was used so frequently for this purpose as the 
Sheep, and in many passages of the Mosaic law are specified 
the precise age as well as the sex of the Sheep which was to be 
sacrificed in certain circumstances. Sometimes the Sheep was 
sacrificed as an offering of thanksgiving, sometimes as an 
expiation for sin, and sometimes as a redemption for some more 
valuable animal. The young male lamb was the usual sacrifice ; 



204 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

and almost the only sacrifice for wMch a Sheep might not be 
offered was that of the two goats on the great Day of Atone- 
ment. 




A LAMB UPON THE AXTAB OF BURXT OFFEELNG. 

To mention all the passages in which the Sheep is ordered for 
sacrifice would occupy too much of our space, and we will there- 
fore restrict ourselves to the one central rite of the Jewish nation, 
the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb, the precursor of the Lamb of 
God, who taketh away the sins of the world. 

Without examining in full the various ceremonies of the 
Paschal sacrifice, we will glance over the salient points which 
distinguish it from any other sacrifice. 

The lamb must be a male, which is selected and examined 
with the minutest care, that it may be free from all blemish, 
and must be of the first year. It must be killed on the four- 
teenth of the month Abib as the sun is setting, and the blood 
must be sprinkled with hyssop. In the first or Egyptian Pass- 
over the blood was sprinkled on the lintels and doorposts of 
the houses, but afterwards on the altar. It must be roasted 
with fire, and not boiled, after the usual custom in the East ; 
not a bone must be broken. It must be eaten by the household 
in haste, as if they w^ere just starting on a journey, and if any 
of it should be left, it must be consumed in the fire, and not 
eaten on the following day. 

Such are the chief points in connexion with the Paschal rite, 



THE SHEEP. 205 

at once a sacrifice and a feast. The original directions not beinij 
sufficiently minute to meet all the practical difficulties which 
might hinder the correct performance of the rite, a vast number 
of directions are given by the Rabbinical writers. In order, for 
example, to guard against the destruction of any part of the 
animal by careless cooking over a fire, or the possible fracture of 
a bone by a sudden jet of flame, the Paschal lamb was rather 
baked than roasted, being placed in an earthen oven from 
which the ashes had been removed. In order to prevent it 
from being burned or blackened against the sides of the oven, 
(in which case it would be cooked with earthenware and not 
with fire), it was transfixed with a wooden stake, made from the 
pomegranate- tree, and a transverse spit was thrust through the 
shoulders. These spits were made of wood, because a metal spit 
would become heated in the oven, and would cause all the flesh 
which it touched to be roasted with metal, and not with fire ; 
and the wood of the pomegranate was chosen, because that 
wood was supposed not to emit any sap when heated. If a 
drop of water had fallen on the flesh, the law would have been 
broken, as that part of the flesh would be considered as boiled, 
and not roasted. 

As to the eating of unleavened bread and bitter herbs with 
the lamb, the custom does not bear on the present subject. 
In shape the oven seems to have resembled a straw beehive, 
having an opening at the side by which the fuel could be 
removed and the lamb inserted. 

The ceremony of the Passover has been described by several 
persons, such as the late Consul Rogers and the Dean of West- 
minster, the latter of whom has given a most striking and vivid 
account of the rite in his " Lectures on the Jewish Church." 

The place which is now employed in the celebration of this 
rite is a level spot about two hundred yards from the summit of 
the mountain, a place which is apparently selected on account 
of its comparative quiet and seclusion. Dean Stanley thinks 
that in former times, when the Samaritans were the masters of 
the country, they celebrated the sacrifice on the sacred plateau 
on the very summit of the mountain, so that the rite could be 
seen for a vast distance on every side. Now, however, the less 
conspicuous place is preferred. By the kindness of the Pales- 
tine Exploration Society, I am enabled to present the reader 



206 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



with a view of this sacred spot, taken from a photograph made 
an hour or two before the time of sacrifice. The rough, rugged 
character of the mountain is shown by this illustration, though 
not so well as in several other photographs of Gerizim, in which 
the entire surface seems to be loosely covered with stones Hke 
those of which the low wall is built. Near the centre of the 
illustration may be seen a pile of stickB and the tops of two 




THE PLACE OF 5ACRIFICB.. 



caldrons, on each of which a stone is laid to keep the cover from 
being blown off by the wind. These sticks nearly fill a trench 
in which the caldrons are sunk, and their use will be presently 
seen on reading Dean Stanley's narrative. In the far distance 
are the plains of Samaria, and the long-drawn shadows of the 
priest and his nephew, and probable successor, sliow that the 
time of sacrifice is rapidly approaching. 



THE SHEEP. 207 

On the previous day the whole of the community had pitched 
their tents on the mountain, and as the time of sunset approached 
the women retired to the tents, and all the males, except those 
who were unclean according to the provisions of the Mosaic law, 
assembled near a long deep trench that had been dug in the 
ground. The men are clothed in long white garments, and the 
six young men who are selected as the actual sacrificers aro 
dressed in white drawers and shirts. These youths are trained 
to the duty, but whether they hold any sacred office could not 
be ascertained. 

Then, according to the narrative of Dean Stanley, " the priest, 
ascending a large rough stone in front of the congTegation, re- 
cited in a loud chant or scream, in which the others joined, 
prayers or praises chiefly turning on the glories of Abraham 
and Isaac. Their attitude was that of all Orientals in prayer ; 
standing, occasionally diversified by the stretching out of the 
hands, and more rarely by kneeling or crouching, with their 
knees wrapped in their clothes and bent to the ground, towards 
the Holy Place on the summit of Gerizim. The priest recited 
his prayers by heart ; the others had mostly books in Hebrew 
and Arabic. 

" Presently, suddenly there appeared amongst the worshippers 
six sheep, driven up by the side of the youths before mentioned. 
The unconscious innocence with which they wandered to and 
fro amongst the bystanders, and the simplicity in aspect and 
manner of the young men who tended them, more recalled a 
pastoral scene in Arcadia, or one of those inimitable patriarchal 
tableaux represented in the Ammergau Mystery, than a religious 
ceremonial. 

" The sun, meanwhile, which had hitherto burnished up the 
Mediterranean in the distance, now sank very nearly to the 
farthest western ridge overhanging the plain of Sharon. The 
recitation became more vehement. The priest turned about, 
facing his brethren, and the whole history of the Exodus from 
the beginning of the plagues of Egypt was rapidly, almost 
furiously, chanted. The sheep, still innocently playful, were 
driven more closely together. 

" The setting sun now touched the ridge. The youths burst 
into a wild murmur of tlieir own, drew forth their long bright 
knives, and brandished them aloft. In a moment the sheep 



208 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

were thrown on their backs, and the flashing knives rapidly 
drawn across their throats. Then a few convulsive but silent 
struggles — 'as a slieap . . . dumb . . . that openeth not his mouth/ 
— and the six forms lay lifeless on the ground, the blood streaming 
from them ; the one only Jewish sacrifice lingering in the world. 
In the blood the young men dipped their fingers, and a small 
spot was marked on the foreheads and noses of the children. A 
few years ago the red stain was placed on all. But this had 
now dwindled away into the present practice, presers^ed, we were 
told, as a relic or emblem of the whole. Then, as if in con- 
gratulation at the completion of the ceremony, they all kissed 
each other, in the Oriental fashion, on each side of the head. 

" The next process was that of the fleecing and roasting of the 
slaughtered animals, for which the ancient temple furnished 
such ample provisions. Two holes on the mountain side had 
been dug; one at some distance, of considerable depth, the other, 
close to the scene of the sacrifice, comparatively shallow. In 
this latter cavity, after a short prayer, a fire was kindled, out of 
the mass of dry heath, juniper, and briers, such as furnished the 
materials for the conflagration in Jotham's parable, delivered not 
far from this spot. 

" Over the fire were placed two caldrons full of water. 'Whilst 
the water boiled, the congTegation again stood around, and (as if 
for economy of time) continued the recitation of the Book of 
Exodus, and bitter herbs were handed round wrapped in a strip 
of unleavened bread — ' with unleavened bread and bitter herbs 
shall they eat it.' Then was chanted another short prayer ; after 
which the six youths again appeared, poured the boiling water 
over the sheep, and plucked off their fleeces. The right forelegs 
of the sheep, with the entrails, were thrown aside and burnt. 
The liver was carefully put back. Long poles were brought, on 
which the animals were spitted; near the bottom of each pole 
was a transverse peg or stick, to prevent the body from slip- 
ping off"." 

This cross-piece does not, however, penetrate the body, which 
in most cases scarcely touches it, so that there is little or no 
resemblance to a crucifixion. The writer lays especial stress on 
this point, because the early Christians saw in the transverse spit 
an emblem of the cross. In the Jewish Passover this emblem 
would have been more appropriate, as in that ceremony the 



THE SHEEP. 209 

cross-piece was passed through the shoulders, and the forefeet 
tied to it. 

The Sheep being now prepared, they were carried to the oven,, 
which on this occasion was a deep, circular pit, in which a fire 
had been previously Idndled. Into this the victims were care- 
fully lowered, the stakes on which they were impaled guarding 
their bodies from touching the sides of the oven, and the cross- 
piece at the end preventing them from slipping off the stake to 
the bottom of the pit among the ashes. A hurdle was then laid 
on the mouth of the pit, and wet earth was heaped upon it so as 
to close it completely. The greater part of the community then 
retired to rest. In about five hours, the Paschal moon being 
high in the heavens, announcement was made that the feast was 
about to begin. Then, to resume Dean Stanley's narrative, 

" Suddenly the covering of the hole was torn off, and up rose 
into the still moonlit sky a vast column of smoke and steam ; 
recalling, with a shock of surprise, that, even by an accidental 
coincidence, Eeginald Heber should have so well caught this 
striking feature of so remote and unknown a ritual : 

Smokes on Gerizim's mount Samaria's sacrifice. ' 

" Out of the pit were dragged successively the six sheep, on 
their long spits, black from the oven. The outHnes of their 
heads, their ears, their legs, were still visible — 'his head, with 
his legs, and with the inward parts thereof.' They were hoisted 
aloft, and then thrown on large square brown mats, previously 
prepared for their reception, on which we were carefully pre- 
vented from treading, as also from touching even the extremities 
of the spit. 

" The bodies thus wrapped in the mats were hurried down to 
the trench where the sacrifice had taken place, and laid out upon 
them in a line between two files of the Samaritans. Those who 
had before been dressed in white robes still retained them, with 
the addition now of shoes on their feet and staves in their hands, 
and ropes round their waists—' thus shall ye eat it ; with your 
loins girded, your shoes on your feet, your staff in your hand.' 
Tlie recitation of prayers or of the Pentateuch recommenced, and 
continued till it suddenly terminated in their all sitting down on 
their haunches, after the Arab fashion at meals, and beginning 
to eat. This, too, is a deviation from the practice of only a few 



210 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



years since, when they retained the Mosaic ritual of standing 
whilst they ate. The actual feast was conducted in rapid silence, 
as of men in hunger, as no doubt most of them were, and so as 
soon to consume every portion of the blackened masses, which 
they tore away piecemeal with their fingers — 'ye shall eat in 
haste.' There was a general merriment, as of a hearty and 
welcome meaL 

" In ten minutes all was gone but a few remnants. To the 
priest and to the women, who, all but two (probably his two 
wives), remained in the tents, separate morsels were carried 
round. The remnants were gathered into the mats, and put on a 
wooden grate, or hurdle, over the hole where the water had been 
originally boiled ; the fire was again lit, and a huge bonfire was 
kindled. By its blaze, and by candles lighted for the purpose, 
the ground was searched in every direction, as for the conse- 
crated particles of sacramental elements ; and these fragments of 
flesh and bone were thrown upon the burning mass — *ye shall 
let nothing remain until the morning ; and that which remaineth 
until the morning ye shall burn with fire ; ' 'there shall not 
anything of the flesh which thou sacrificest the first day at even 
remain all night until the morning ; ' ' thou shalt not carry forth 
aught of the flesh abroad out of the house.' The flames blazed 
up once more, and then gradually sank away. 

" Perhaps in another century the fire on Mount Gerizim will 
be the only relic left of this most interesting and ancient rite." 





THE CHAMOIS. 

The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the Bible — Signification of the word 
Zemer — Probability that the Zemer is the Aoudad — Its strength and activity — 
The Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad under the name of Zemer. 



Among the animals which may be used for food is mentioned one 
which in our version is rendered Chamois. See Deut. xiv. 5, a 
passage which has several times been quoted. 

It is evident to any one acquainted with zoology tliat, whatever 
may be the Hebrew word, " Chamois " cannot be the correct ren- 
dering, inasmuch as this animal does not inhabit Palestine, nor are 
there any proofs that it ever did so. The Chamois frequents the 
lofty inaccessible crags of the highest mountains, finding its food 
in the scanty herbage which grows in such regions, appearing on 
the brink of awful precipices, and leaping from ledge to ledge 
with ease and safety. We must, therefore, look for some other 

animal, 

211 



212 ^TORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The Chamois is one of the most wary of Antelopes, and possesses 
the power of scenting mankind at what would seem to be an im- 
possible distance. 

Its ears are as acute as its nostrils, so that there are few ani- 
mals which are so difficult to approach. 

Only those who have been trained to climb the giddy heights of 
the Alpine Mountains, to traverse the most fearfiil precipices with 
a quiet pulse and steady head, to exist for days amid the terrible 
solitudes of ice, rock, and snow, — only these, can hope to come 
within sight of the Chamois, when the animal is at large upon 
its native cliffs. 

The Hebrew word, which has been rendered Chamois, is 
Zamar, or Zemer, i. e. the leaper, and therefore an animal which 
is conspicuous for its agility. Zoologists have now agreed in 
the opinion that the Zamer of Deuteronomy is the handsome 
wild sheep which we know under the name of Aoudad {Ammo- 
tragus Tragela;plius). This splendid sheep is known by various 
names. It is the Jaela of some authors, and the Bearded Sheep of 
others. It is also called the Fichtall, or Lerwea ; and the French 
zoologists describe it under the name of Mouflon a mancheties, 
in allusion to the fringe of long hair that ornaments the fore 
limbs. 

The Aoudad is a large and powerful animal, exceedingly 
active, and has the habits of the goat rather than of the sheep, 
on which account it is reckoned among the goats by the Arabs 
of the present day, and doubtless was similarly classed by the 
ancient inhabitants of Palestine. The heisfht of the adult 

o 

Aoudad is about three feet, and its general colour is pale dun, 
relieved by the dark masses of long hair that fall from the neck 
.and the tufts of similar hair which decorate the knees of the 
male. The female is also bearded and tufted, but the hair, 
which in the male looks like the mane of the lion, in the female 
is but slightly developed. 

It is so powerful and active an animal, that an adult male 
which lived for some time in the Zoological Gardens was much 
dreaded by the keepers, not even the man who fed it liking to 
enter the enclosure if he could help himseK. The animal was 
given to making unexpected charges, and would do so with 
astonishing quickness, springing round and leaping at the object 
of his hate witk tremendous foTce, and wdth such rapidity that 




CHAMOIS DEFENDING ITS YOUNG, 



214 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



even the experienced keeper, who knew all the ways of the 
animals under his charge, had often some difiQciilty in slipping 
behind the door, against which the horns of the Aoudad would 
clatter as if they would break the door to pieces. So fond was 
he of attacking something that he would often butt repeatedly 




CHASING THE AOUDAD. 



at the wooden side of the shed, hurKng himself against it with 
eager fury. 

The horns of the Aoudad are about two feet in length, and are 
of considerable diameter. They curve boldly and gracefully 
backwards, their points diverging considerably from each other, 
so that when the animal throws its head up, the points of the 
horns oome on either side of the back. This divergence of the 
horns has another object. They cover a considerable space, so 



- THE CHAMOIS. 215 

that when the animal makes its charge the object of its anger 
has much more difficulty in escaping the blow than if the horns 
were closer together. 

Whether these horns were used as musical instniments is 
doubtful, simply because we are not absolutely sure that the 
Zamar and the Aoudad are identical, however great may be the 
probability. But inasmuch as the horn-trumpets were evidently 
of various sizes, it is certain that the Jewish musicians would 
never have neglected to take advantage of such magnificeni 
materials as they would obtain from the horns of this animal 
Perhaps the Chaldaic " keren " may have been the horn of the 
Aoudad, or of the animal which wiU next be mentioned. 

The Aoudad is wonderfully active, and even the young ones 
bound to an astonishing height. I have seen the marks of their 
hoofs eight feet from the ground. 

In its wild state the Aoudad lives in little flocks or herds, 
and prefers the high and rocky ground, over which it leaps with 
a sure-footed agility equal to that of the Chamois itself. These 
flocks are chased by hunters, who try to get it upon the lowest 
and least broken ground, where it is at a disadvantage, and 
then run it down with their horses, as seen in the illustration 
on page 214. 

The Aoudad was formerly plentiful in Egypt, and even now 
is found along the Atlas mountain-range. It is seen on the 
Egyptian monuments, and, owing to its evident profusion, we 
have every reason to conjecture that it was one of those animals 
which were specially indicated as chewing the cud and cleaving 
the hoof. 

Perhaps the Mouflon {Gajprovis Musimon) may be the animal 
which is meant by the Hebrew word Zamar, and it is not 
unlikely that both animals may have been included in one 
name. 

This animal, which is nearly allied to the Aoudad, is also 
very goatlike in general aspect. It is indeed to this resemblance 
that the name Caprovis, or goat-sheep, has been given to it. The 
name Ammotragus, which, as mentioned above, belongs to the 
Aoudad, has a similar signification. 

The horns of the Mouflon belong only to the male animal, 



216 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



and are of enormous size, so that if trumpets of deep tone and 
great power were needed, they could be obtained from the horns 
of this animal. Those of the Aoudad are very large, and would 
be well adapted for the same purpose, but they would not furnish 




THE MOUITLON. 



such instruments as the horns of the Mouflou, which are so 
large that they seem almost unwieldy for an animal of twice 
the Mouflon's size, and give visible proofs of the strength and 
agility of an animal which can carry them so lightly and leap 
about under their weight so easily as does the Mouflon. 

At the present time the Moufion is only to be found in 
Crete, Sardinia, and Corsica, but formerly it was known to 
inhabit many other parts of the earth, and was almost certainly 
one of the many animals which then haunted the Lebanon, but 
which have in later days been extirpated. 



THE GOAT. 217 



THE GOAT. 

Value of the Goat — Its use in furnishing food — The male kid the usual animal of 
slaughter — Excellence of the flesh and deception of Isaac — Milk of the Goat — 
An Oriental milking scene — The hair of the goat, and the uses to which it is 
put — The Goat's skin used for leather — The "bottle" of Scripture — Mode of 
making and repairing the bottles — Ruse of the Gibeonites — The " bottle in the 
smoke " — The sacks and the kneading troughs — The Goat as u.sed for sacrifice 
— General habits of the Goat — Separation of the Goats from the sheep — Per- 
forming Goats — Different breeds of Goats in Palestine. 

Whether considered in reference to food, to clothing, or to 
sacrifice, the Goat was scarcely a less important animal than the 
sheep. It was especially valuable in such a country as Pales- 
tine, in which the soil and the climate vary so much according 
to the locality. Upon the large fertile plains the sheep are bred 
in vast flocks, the rich and succulent grass being exactly to their 
taste ; while in the hilly and craggy districts the Goats abound, 
and delight in browsing upon the scanty herbage that grows 
upon the mountain-side. 

For food the Goat was even more extensively used than the 
sheep. The adult male was, of course, not eaten, being very 
tough, and having an odour which would repel any but an 
actually starving man. Neither were the females generally 
eaten, as they were needed for the future increase of the flocks, 
The young male kid formed the principal material of a feast, and 
as soon as a stranger claimed the hospitality of a man in good 
circumstances, the first thing that was done was to take a young 
male kid and dress it for him. 

For example, when the angel visited Gideon in the guise of a 
stranger, Gideon " went in and made ready a kid, and unlea- 
vened cakes of an ephah of flour," and brought them to his 
guest (Judges vi. 19). And when Isaac was on his death-bed 

lO 



218 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

and asked Esau to take his bow and arrows and hunt foi 
" venison," which was probably the iflesh of one of the antelopes 
which have already been mentioned, a ready substitute was 
found in the two kids, from whose flesh Eebekah made the dish 
for which he longed. The imposition might easily pass without 




JACOB DECEIVKS HIS FATHER AND TAKES ESAU'S BLESSIXG. 

detection, because the flesh of the kid is peculiarly tender, and 
can scarcely be distinguished from lamb, even when simply 
roasted. Isaac, therefore, with his senses dulled by his great 
age, was the less likely to discover the imposture, when the flesh 
of the kids was stewed into " savoury meat such as he loved." 

A curious illustration of the prevalence of kid's flesh as food 
is given in the parable of the prodigal son, for whom his father 
had killed the fatted calf "And he answering said to his 
father, Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed 
I at any time thy commandment : and yet thou never gavest me 
a kid, that I might make merry with my friends " (Luke xv. 29). 
The force of the reproval cannot be properly understood unless we 
are acquainted with the customs of the East. The kid was the 
least valuable animal that could have been given, less valuable 



THE GOAT. 



219 



than a lamb, and infinitely inferior to the fatted calf, which was 
kept in wealthy households for some feast of more than ordinary 
magnificence. 

The kid was cooked exactly in the same manner as the sheep, 
namely, by cutting to pieces and stewing in a caldron, the meat 
and broth being served separately. See, for example, the case of 
Gideon, to whom a reference has already been made. When he 
brought the banquet to his guest, " the flesh he put in a basket, 
and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him under 
the oak, and presented it. And the angel of God said unto him, 
Take the flesh and the unleavened cakes, and lay them upon this 
rock, and pour out the broth." 




THE ANGEL APPEARS TO GIDEON. 



Gideon did so, and the angel reached forth the staft' that was in 
his hand, and touched the flesh, and there rose up fire out of the 
rock and burnt up the offering. 

The same custom exists at the present day. When an Arab chief 
receives a guest, a kid is immediately killed and given to the women to 
be cooked, and the guest is pressed to stay until it is ready, in the very 
words used by Gideon three thousand years ago. " Depart not hence, 
I pray thee, until I come unto thee, and bring forth my present, and 
set it before thee." The refusal of proffered hospitality would be. 



220 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

and still is considered to be, either a studied insult, or a proof 
of bad manners, and no one with any claims to breeding would 
commit such an action without urgent cause and much apology. 

Like the sheep, the Goat is extremely valuable as a milk- 
producer, and at the present day the milk of the Goat is used 
as largely as that of the sheep. " At Easheiya, under Mount 
Hermon/' writes Mr. Tristram, " we saw some hundreds of 
goats gathering for the night in the wide open market-place 
beneath the castle. It was no easy matter to thread our way 
among them, as they had no idea of moving for such belated in- 
truders on their rest. All the she-goats of the neighbouring hills 
are driven in every evening, and remain for their morning's 
milking, after which they set forth on their day's excursion. 

*' Each house possesses several, and all know their owners. 
The evening milking is a picturesque scene. Every street and 
open space is filled with the goats ; and women, boys, and girls 
are everywhere milking mth their small pewter pots, while the 
goats are anxiously awaiting their turn, or l^^ng down to chew 
the cud as soon as it is over. As no kids or he-goats are 
admitted, the scene is veiy orderly, and there is none of the 
deafening bleating which ustially characterises large flocks. 

" These mountain goats are a solemn set, and by the gravity of 
their demeanour excite a suspicion that they have had no youth, 
and never were kids. They need no herdsman to bring them 
home in the evening, for, fully sensible of the danger of re- 
maining unprotected, they hurry homewards of their own accord 
as soon as the sun begins to decline." 

Like the wool of the sheep, the hair of the Goat is used for 
the manufacture of clothing ; and, as is the case with wool, its 
quality differs according to the particular breed of the animal, 
which assumes almost as many varieties as the sheep or the dog. 
The hair of some varieties is thick and rough, and can only be 
made into coarse cloths, while others, of which the mohair Goat 
and Cashmere Goat are familiar examples, furnish a staple of 
surpassing delicacy and fineness. It is most likely that the 
covering and curtains of the Tabernacle mentioned in Exod. 
xxvi. 7 were of the latter kind, as otherwise they would have 
been out of character with the fine linen, and blue and scarlet, 
their golden clasps, and the profuse magnificence which distin- 



THE GOAT. 221 

guished every part of the sacred buildinfr. Moreover, the liaii 
of the Goat is classed among the costly offerings which were 
made when the Tabernacle was built. " And they came forth, 
men and women, as m'any as were willing hearted, and brought 
bracelets, and earrings, and rings, and tablets, all jewels of 
gold : and every man that offered offered an offering of gold 
unto the Lord. And every man, with whom was found blue, 
and purple, and scarlet, and line linen, and goats' hair, and red 
skins of rams, and badgers' skins, brought them " to be used in 
the structure of that wonderful building, in which nothing 
might be used except the finest and costliest that could be 
procured. 

One of the principal uses to which the goat-skin was applied 
was the manufacture of leather, for which purpose it is still 
used, and is considered far better than that of the sheep. 
Perhaps the most common form in which this leather is used 
is the well-known water-vessel, or " bottle " of the Bible. 

These so-called bottles are made from the entire skin of the 
animal, which is prepared in slightly different methods according 
to the locality in which the manufacture is carried on. In 
Palestine they are soaked for some little time in the tanning 
mixture, and are then filled with water, after the seams have 
been pitched. In this state they are kept for some time, and 
are kept exposed to the sun, covered entirely with the tanning 
fluid, and filled up with water to supply the loss caused by 
evaporation and leakage. 

The hair is allowed to remain on the skins, because it acts as 
a preservative against the rough usage to which they are subject 
at the hard hands of the water-carriers. By degrees the hairy 
covering wears off, first in patches, and then over the entire 
surface, so that a new bottle can be recognised at a glance, and 
any one who wished to sell an old bottle at the price of a new 
one would be at once detected. 

Vessels made in this rude manner are absolutely necessary in 
the countries wherein they are used. Wooden or metal vessels 
would be too heavy, and, besides, the slight though constant 
evaporation that always takes place through the pores of the 
leather keeps down the temperature of the water, even under a 
burning sun, the slight loss which is caused by the porousness of 
the skin being more than counterbalanced by the coolness of the 



222 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

water. It is true that the goat-skin communicates to the liquid 
a flavour far from pleasant, but in those countries the quality of 
the water is of little consequence, provided that it is plentiful in 
quantity, and tolerably cool. 

In all parts of the world where the skin is used for this 
purpose the mode of manufacture is practically identical. An 
account of the art of preparing the goat-skin as practised in 
Abyssinia is given by Mr. C. Johnston, in his "Travels in 
Southern Abyssinia : " — 

" To be of any value it must be taken off uncut, except around 
the neck, and in those situations necessary to enable the butchers 
to draw the legs out of the skin ; also, of course, where the first 
incision is made to commence the process, and which is a circular 
cut carried around both haunches, not many inches from and 
having the tail for a centre. The hide is then stripped over the 
thighs, and two smaller incisions being made round the middle 
joint of the hind-legs enable them to be drawn out. 

" A stick is now placed to extend these extremities, and by 
this, for the convenience of the operators, the whole carcase is 
suspended from the branch of a tree, and, by soine easy pulls 
around the body, the skin is gradually withdrawn over the fore- 
legs, which are incised around the knees, to admit of their being 
taken out ; after which, the head being removed, the whole busi- 
ness concludes by the skin being pulled inside out over the 
decollated neck. One of the parties now takes a rough stone 
and well rubs the inside surface, to divest it of a few fibres of 
the subcutaneous muscle which are inserted into the skin, and 
after this operation it is laid aside until the next day ; the more 
interesting business of attending to the meat calling for imme- 
diate attention. 

•* These entire skins are afterwards made into sacks by tht 
apertures around the neck and legs being secured by a double 
fold of the skin being sewed upon each other, by means of a 
slender but very tough thong. These small seams are rendered 
quite air-tight, and the larger orifice around the haunches being 
gathered together by the hands, the yet raw skin is distended 
with air ; and the orifice being then tied up, the swoUen bag is 
left in that state for a few days, until slight putrefaction has 
commenced, when the application, of the rough stone soon divests 
its surface of the hair. After this has been effected, a deal of 



THE GOAT. 223 

labour, during at least one day, is required to soften the distended 
skin by beating it with heavy sticks, or trampling upon it for 
hours together, the labourer supporting himself by clinging to 
the bough of a tree overhead, or holding on by the wall of the 
house. 

" In this manner, whilst the skin is drying, it is prevented 
from getting stiff, and, still further to secure it from this evil 
condition, it is frequently rubbed with small quantities of butter. 
When it is supposed that there is no chance of the skin becoming 
hard and easily broken, the orifice is opened, the air escapes, and 
a very soft, flaccid leather bag is produced, but which, for several 
days after, affords an amusement to the owner, when otherwise 
unemployed, by well rubbing it all over with his hands." 

The reader will see that the two processes are practically 
identical, the chief difference being that in one country the skins 
are distended with water and in the other with air. 

As these bottles are rather apt to be damaged by the thorns, 
branches, rocks, and similar objects with which they come in 
contact, and are much too valuable to be thrown away as useless, 
their owners have discovered methods of patching and repairing 
them, which enable them to be used for some time longer. 
Patches of considerable size are sometimes inserted, if the rent 
should be of importance, while the wound caused by a thorn is 
mended by a simple and efficacious expedient. The skin is first 
emptied, and a round fiat piece of wood, or even a stone of 
suitable shape, is put into it. The skin is then held with the 
wounded part downwards, and the stone shaken about until it 
comes exactly upon the hole. It is then grasped, the still wet 
hide gathered tightly under it, so as to pucker up the skin, and 
a ligature is tied firmly round it. Perhaps some of my readers 
may have practised the same method of mending a punctured 
football. 

Allusion to this mode of mending the skin bottles is made in 
Josh. ix. 4, 13. Tlie Gibeonites " did work wilily, and went and 
made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon 
their asses, and wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up . . . and 
-said . . . these bottles of wine, which we filled, were new ; and, 
behold, they be rent." 

If these skin bottles be allowed to become dry, as is some- 
times the case when they are hung up in the smoky tents, they 



224 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



shrivel up, and become rotten and weak, and are no longer 
enabled to bear the pressure caused by the fermentation of new 




EASTERN WATEB-CABBIEBS WITH BOTTI.ES MADE OF GOAT-SKtN. ■ 

wine. So, in Ps. cxix. 81—83 : " My soul fainteth for Thy salva- 
tion; but I hope in Thy word, 



THE GOAT. 225 

" Mine eyes fail for Thy word, saying, When wilt Thon com- 
fort me ? 

" For I am become like a bottle in the smoke ; yet do I not 
forget Thy statutes." 

How forcible does not this image become, when we realize the 
early life of the shepherd poet, his dwelling in tents wherein are 
no windows nor chimneys, and in which the smoke rolls to and 
fro until it settles in the form of soot upon the leathern bottles 
and othei rude articles of furniture that are hung from the 
poles ! 

In the New Testament there is a well-known allusion to the 
weakness of old bottles : " Neither do men put new wine into 
old bottles, or the bottles break and the wine runneth out, and 
the bottles perish ; but they put new wine into new bottles, and 
both are preserved." It would be impossible to understand the 
meaning of this passage unless we knew that the " bottles " in 
question were not vessels of glass or earthenware, but merely 
the partly-tanned skins of goats. 

Another allusion to the use of the goat-skin is made in that 
part of the Book of Joshua which has already been mentioned. 
If the reader will refer to Josh. ix. 4, he will see that the 
Gibeonites took with them not only old bottles, but old sacks. 
Now, these sacks bore no resemblance to the hempen bags with 
which we are so familiar, but were nothing more than the same 
goat-skins that were employed in the manufacture of bottles, but 
with the opening at the neck left open. They were, in fact, 
skin-bottles for holding solids instead of liquids. The sacks 
which Joseph's brethren took with them, and in the mouths of 
which they found their money, were simply goat-skin bags, made 
as described. 

Yet another use for the goat-skin. It is almost certain that 
the " kneading-trough s " of the ancient Israelites were simply 
circular pieces of goat-skin, which could be laid on the ground 
when wanted, and rolled up and carried away when out of use. 
Thus, the fact that " the people took their dough before it was 
leavened, their knead ing-troughs being bound up in their clothing 
upon their shoulders," need cause no surprise. 

Nothing could be more in accordance with probability. The 
women were all hard at work, preparing the l)read for the expected 
journey, when the terrified Pharaoh " called for Moses and ^aron 



226 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

by night, and said, Eise up, and get you forth from among my 
people, both ye and the children of Israel, and go, serve the 
Lord, as ye have said. . . . And the Egyptians were urgent wpon 
the people that they might send them out of the land in ha,ste ; 
for they said. We be all dead men." 

So the women, being disturbed at their work, and being driven 
out of the country before they had leavened, much less baked, 
their bread, had no alternative but to roll up the dough in the 
leathern " kneading-troughs," tie them up in a bundle with their 
spare clothing, and carry them on their shoulders ; whereas, if 
we connect the kneading-troughs with the large heavy wooden 
implements used in this country, we shall form an entirely 
erroneous idea of the proceeding. As soon as they came to their 
first halting-place at Succoth, they took the leathern kneading- 
troughs out of their clothes, unrolled them, took the dough 
which had not even been leavened, so unexpectedly had the order 
for marching arrived, made it into flat cakes, and baked them 
as they best could. The same kind of " kneadiug-trough " is 
still in use in many parts of the world. 

Stone as well as earthenware jars were also used by t]ie 
inhabitants of ancient Palestine ; but they were only employed 
for the storage of wine in houses, whereas the bottles that were 
used in carrying wine from one place to another were invariably 
made of leather. Water also was stored in stone or earthenware 
jars. See, for example, John ii. 6 : " And there were set there 
six waterpots of stone, after the manner of the purifying of the 
Jews, containing two or three firkins apiece." Whereas, when 
it was carried about, it was poured into bottles made of skin. 
Such was probably the " bottle of water " that Abraham put 
on Hagar*s shoulder, when she was driven away by the jealousy 
of Sarah, and such was the " bottle of wine " that Hannah brought 
as her offering when she dedicated Samuel to the service of 
God. 

In sacrifices the Goat was in nearly as much requisition as 
the lamb, and in one — namely, that which was celebrated on the 
Great Day of Atonement — the Goat was specially mentioned as 
the only animal which could be sacrificed. The reader will, 
perhaps, remember that for this peculiar sacrifice two Goats were 
required, on wliich two lots were cast, one for the Lord, i. e. with 
the word " Jeliovah" upon it, and the other for the scapegoat, 



THE GOAT. 227 

I.e. inscribed with the word " Azazel." The latter term is derived 
from two Hebrew words, the former being " Az," which is the 
general name for the Goat, and the second " azel," signifying " he 
departed." The former, which belonged to Jehovah, was sacri- 
ficed, and its blood sprinkled upon the mercy-seat and the altar of 
incense ; and the Goat Azazel was led away into the wilderness, 
bearing upon its head the sins of the people, and there let 
loose. 

These being the uses of the Goat, it may naturally be imagined 
that the animal is one of extreme importance, and that it is 
watched as carefully by its owners as the sheep. Indeed, botli 
sheep and Goats belong to the same master, and are tended by 
the same shepherd, who exercises the same sway over them that 
he does over the sheep. 

They are, however, erratic animals, and, although they will 
follow the shepherd wherever he may lead them, they will not 
mix with the sheep. The latter will walk in a compact flock 
along the valley, the shepherd leading the way, and the sheep 
following him, led in their turn by the sound of the bell tied 
round the neck of the master-ram of the flock. The Goats, 
however, will not submit to walk in so quiet a manner, but pre- 
fer to climb along the sides of the rocks that skirt the valleys, 
skipping and jumping as they go, and seeming to take delight 
in getting themselves into dangerous places, where a man could 
not venture to set his foot. 

In the evening, when the shepherds call their flocks to repose, 
they often make use of the caverns which exist at some height 
in the precipitous side of the hills, as being safe strongholds, 
wliere the jackal and the hyaena will not venture to attack them. 
When such is the case, the shepherds take their station by the 
mouth of the cave, and assist the sheep as they come sedately 
up the narrow path that leads to the cavern. The Goats, how- 
ever, need no assistance, but come scrambling along by paths 
where no foot but a Goat's could tread, mostly descending from a 
considerable height above the cave, and, as if in exultation at 
their superior agility, jumping over the backs of the sheep as 
tliey slowly file into the accustomed fold. 

Friendly as they are, the Goats and sheep never minglo 
together. There may be large flocks of them feeding in the same 



228 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



pasturage, but the Goats always take the highest spots on which 
verdure grows, while the sheep graze quietly below. Goats are 
specially fond of the tender shoots of trees, which they find in 
plenty upon the mountain side ; and, according to Mr. Tristram, 



i< 




GOATS ON THE MAKCH. 



by their continual browsing, they have extirpated many species 
of trees which were once common on the hills of Palestine, and 
which now can only be found in Lebanon on the east of the 
Jordan. 

Even when folded together in the same enclosure, the Goats 
never mix with the sheej), but gather together by themselves, and 
they instinctively take the same order when assembled round the 
wells at mid-day. 



THE GOAT. 229 

This instinctive separation of the sheep and the goats naturally 
recalls to our minds the well-known saying of our Lord that 
"before Him shall be gathered all nations, and -He shall separate 
them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from 
the goats : and He shall set the sheep on His right hand, and 
the goats on His left." 

The image thus used was one that was familiar to all the 
hearers, who were accustomed daily to see the herds of sheep 
and Goats under one shepherd, yet totally distinct from each other. 
At feeding-time the Goats will be browsing in long lines on the 
mountain sides, while the sheep are grazing in the plain or 
valley ; at mid-day, when the flocks are gathered round the wells 
to await the rolling away of the stone that guards the water, the 
Goats assemble on one side and the sheep on the other. And 
at night, when they are all gathered into one fold by one shep- 
herd, they are still separated from each other. The same image 
is employed by the prophet Ezekiel : " As for you, my flock, 
thus said the Lord God, Behold I judge between cattle and 
cattle, between rams and the he-goats.' 

Generally, the leading Goat was distinguished by a bell as 
well as the leading sheep, and in reference to this custom there 
was an old proverb, " If the shepherd takes the lead, he blinds 
the bell-goat," while another proverb is based upon the inferior 
docility of the animal — "If the shepherd be lame, the Goats 
will run away." 

Yet the Goat can be tamed very effectively, and can even be 
taught to perform many tricks. " We saw just below us, on the 
rudely-constructed 'parade,' a crowd of men and children, sur- 
rounding a fantasticaUy-dressed man exhibiting a Goat, which 
had been tutored to perform some cunning trick. It stood with 
its four feet close together on the top of a very long pole, and 
allowed the man to lift it up and carry it round and round 
within the circle ; then the Goat was perched on four sticks, and 
again carried about. A little band of music — pipes, drums, and 
tambourines — called together the people from all parts of the 
town to witness this performance. 

" The Goat danced and balanced himself obediently and per- 
fectly, in very unnatural-looking positions, as if thoroughly 
understanding the words and commands of his master. The 
men who watched the actions of the Goat looked as grove and 



230 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

serious as if they were attending a philosophical or scientific 
lecture." (" Domestic Life in Palestine," by Miss Eogers.) 

Another feat ia a favourite with the proprietors of trained 
Goats. The man takes a stool and plants it carefully on the 
ground, so as to l^i^ perfectly level, and then orders the Goat to 
stand upon it. A piece of wood about six inches in length, and 
shaped something like a dice-box, is then placed on the stool, 
and the Goat manages to stand on it, all his sharp, hard hoofs 
being pressed closely together on the tiny surface. The man 
then takes another piece of wood and holds it to the Goat's feet. 
The animal gently removes first one foot and then another, and, 
by careful shifting of the feet, enables its master to place the 
second piece of wood on the first. Successive additions are 
made, until at the last the Goat is perched on the topmost of 
some nine or ten pieces of wood balanced on each other, the 
whole looking like a stout reed marked off with joints. 

The stately steps and bold bearing of the old he-goat is 
mentioned in the Proverbs : '' There be three things which go 
well, yea, four are comely in going : 

" A lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not 
away for any ; 

" A greyhound ; an he-goat also ; and a king, against whom 
there is no rising up." (Prov. xxx. 29-31.) The word which is 
here rendered as he-goat signifies literally the " Butter," and is 
given to the animal on account of the mode in which it uses its 
formidable horns. The word is not common in the Bible, but it 
is used even at the present day among the Arabs. 

Several herds of goats exist in Palestine, the most valuable of 
which is the Mohair Goat, and the most common the Syrian 
Goat. These, however dissimilar they may be in appearance, 
are only varieties of the ordinary domestic animal, the former 
being produced artificially by carefully selecting those specimens 
for breeding which have the longest and finest hair. It was from 
the hair of this breed that the costly fabrics used in the Taber- 
nacle were woven, and it is probably to this breed that reference 
is made in Solomon's Song, iv. J, 2: "Behold, thou art fair, 
my love ; behold, thou art fair ; thou hast doves' eyes within thy 
locks : thy hair is as a flock of goats, that appear from Mount 
Gilead. 

" Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn, which 




IIEUD OF GOATS ATTACKKD BY A LION. 



232 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

came up from the washing." In this passage the careful reader 
will also note another reference to the habits of the Goats and 
sheep, the hair being compared to the dark-haired Goats that 
wander on the tops of the hills, while the teeth are compared to 
sheep that are ranged in regular order below. The Mohair Goat 
is known scientifically as Gaiora Angorensis. The same image is 
used again in chap. vi. 5. 

The second breed is that which is commonest throughout the 
country. It is known by the name of the Syrian Goat, and is 
remarkable for the enormous length of its ears, which sometimes 
exceed a foot from root to tip. This variety has been described 
as a separate species under the name of Capra Mamhrica, or 
C, Syriaca, but, like the Mohair Goat, and twenty-three other 
so-called species, is simply a variety of the common Goat, Rircus 
cegragus. 

Eeference is made to the long ears of the Syrian Goat in 
Amos iii. 12 : " Thus saith the Lord : As the shepherd taketh 
out of the mouth of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear ; so 
shall the children of Israel be taken out that dwell in Samaria." 
Such a scene, which was familiar to Amos, the shepherd as 
well as the prophet, is represented in the illustration. In the 
foreground is the goat on which the lion has sprung, and from 
which one of the long ears has been torn away. Its companions 
are gathering round it in sympathy, while its kid is trying to 
discover the cause of its mother's uneasiness. In the background 
is a group of armed shepherds, standing round the lion which 
they have just kiUed, while one of them is holding up the torn 
ear which he has taken out of the Hon's mouth. 



THE WILD GOAT. 233 



THE WILD GOAT. 

The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden or Arabian Ibex — 
Different names of the Beden — Its appearance and general habits — En-gedi, oi 
Goats' Fountain — The Beden formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now 
tolerably common — Its agility - Difficulty of catching or killing it — How the 
young are captured — Flesh of the Beden — Use of the horns at the present day 
— The Ako of Deuteronomy, 

Tn three passages of the Old Testament occurs a word, " Azelim," 
which is variously translated in our Authorized Version. 

It is first seen in 1 Sam. xxiv. 2, in which it is rendered as 
" Wild Goats." " It was told Saul, saying. Behold, David is in 
the wilderness of En-gedi [i.e. the Fountain of the Goat]. Then 
Saul took three thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went 
to seek David and his men upon the rocks of the w^ild goats 
{azelim)!' The same word occurs in Job xxxix. 1 : " Knowest 
thou the time when the wild goats of the rock bring forth ? " 
It is also found in Ps. civ. 18 : " The high hills are a refuge for 
the wild goats." In all these passages it is rendered as " wild 
goats." But, in Prov. v. 19, it is translated as roe: "Kejoice 
with the wife of thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and 
pleasant roe {azelah)!' The Jewish Bible follows the same 
diverse renderings. 

We now have to discover the animal which was signified by 
the word Azel. According to its etymology, it is the Climber, 
just as the adult he-goat is called the Butter. 

That it was a climbing animal is evident from its name, and 
that it loved to clamber among precipices is equally evident 
from the repeated connexion of the word rock with the name of 
the animal. We also see, from the passage in Job, that it is a 
wild animal whose habits were not known. There is scarcely 
any doubt that the Azel of the Old Testament is the Arabian 
Ibex or Beden {Cajpra Nuhiana). This animal is very closely 
allied to the well-known Ibex of the Alps, or Steinbock, but 
may he distinguished from it by one or two slight differences, 



234 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

such as the black beard and the slighter make of the homs, 
which moreover have three angles instead of four, as is the case 
with the Alpine Ibex. 

The Beden is known by several names. It is sometimes 
called the Jaela, sometimes the Nubian Wild Goat, and is also 
known as the Wild Goat of Sinai. The general colour of the 
Beden is grey, becoming brownish in winter, and being whitish 
grey beneath. The feet are spotted with black and white, and 
the beard of the male is black, differing from that of the Alpine 
Ibex, which is brown. The female is beardless. The lines along 
the back and the sides of the tail are black, and there are three 
streaks on each ear. 

The Beden generally lives in little herds of eight or ten, and 
is even now to be found in Palestine. At the strange, wild, 
weird-looking En-gedi (A in Jiddy), or Fountain of the Goats, 
the Beden is still to be seen. Mr. Tristram suggests that David 
and his followers took up their residence at En-gedi for the sake 
of the Wild Goats that were plentiful upon the spot, and which 
would furnish food for himself and his hardy band of outlaws. 
" In the neighbourhood of En-gedi," remarks this traveller, 
" while encamped by the Dead Sea shore, we obtained several 
fine specimens, and very interesting it was to find the graceful 
creature by the very fountain to which it gave name. 

" When clambering over the heights above En-gedi, I often, 
by the help of my glass, saw the Ibex from a distance, and once, 
when near Mar-saba, only a few miles from Jerusalem, started 
one at a distance of four hundred yards. At the south end of 
the Dead Sea they were common, and I have picked up a horn 
both near Jericho on the hills and also on the hills of Moab on 
the eastern side. At Jericho, too, I obtained a young one which 
I hoped to rear, but which died after I had had it for ten days, 
owing, I believe, to the milk with which it was fed being sour. 
Further north and west we did not find it, though I have reason 
to believe that a few linger on the mountains between Samaria 
and the Jordan, and perhaps also on some of the spurs of 
Lebanon. We found its teeth in the breccia of bone occurring in 
the Lebanon, proving its former abundance there." 

As the Beden was found so plentifully even in these days 
when fire-arms have rendered many wild animals scarce and 
wary, so that they will not show themselves within range of a 



THE WILD GOAT. 235 

bullet, it is evident that in the time when David lived at En-gedi 
and drank of the Goats' Fountain they were far more numerous, 
and could afford nourishment to him and his soldiers. Travellers, 
moreover, who do not happen to be experienced hunters, will 
often fail in seeing the Beden, even in places where it is tolerably 
plentiful. The colour of its coat resembles so nearly that of the 
rocks, that an inexperienced eye would see nothing but bare 
stones and sticks where a practised hunter would see numbers 
of Beden, conspicuous by their beautifully curved horns. 

The agility of the Beden is extraordinary. Loving the highest 
and most craggy parts of the mountain ridge, it flings itself from 
spot to spot with a recklessness that startles one who has not 
been accustomed to the animal, and the wonderful certainty of 
its foot. It will, for example, dash at the face of a perpendicular 
precipice that looks as smooth as a brick wall, for the purpose 
of reaching a tiny ledge which is hardly perceptible, and which 
is some fifteen feet or so above the spot whence the animal 
sprang. Its eye, however, has marked certain little cracks and 
projections on the face of the rock, and as the animal makes its 
leap, it takes these little points of vantage in rapid succession, 
just touching them as it passes upwards, and by the slight stroke 
of its foot keeping up the original impulse of its leap. Similarly, 
the Ibex comes sliding and leaping down precipitous sides of 
the mountains, sometimes halting with all the four feet drawn 
together, on a little projection scarcely larger than a penny, and 
sometimes springing boldly over a wide crevasse, and alighting 
with exact precision upon a projecting piece of rock that seems 
scarcely large enough to sustain a rat comfortably. 

The young of the Ibex are sometimes captured and tamed. 
They are, however, difficult to rear, and give much more trouble 
than the young gazelles when taken in a similar manner. The 
natives can generally procure the kids at the proper time of 
year, and sell them at a very cheap rate. They seldom, however, 
can be reared, and even those who live in the country experience 
the greatest difficulty in keeping the young Beden alive until 
it attains maturity. 

Were it not for the curious habits of the Beden, the young 
could scarcely ever be obtained alive, as they are so agile that 
they could easily leap away from their slow two-legged pursuers. 
But the mother Ibex has a habit of leading a very independent 



236 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



life, wandering to considerable distances, and leaving her kid 
snugly hidden in some rock-cleft. The hunters watch the 
mother as she starts off in the morning, clamber up to the 
spot where the kid is concealed, and secure it without difficulty 
The Arabs say that there are always two kids at a birth, but 




ARABIAN IBEX, OR BEDEN ; THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE. 



there is considerable discrepancy of evidence on this point, 
which, after all, is of very little importance. 

The flesh of the Beden is really excellent. It is far superior 
to that of the gazelle, which is comparatively dry and hard, and 
it has been happily suggested that the Beden was the animal in 
search of which Esau was sent to hunt with his quiver and his 
bow, and which furnished the "savoury meat" which Isaac 



THE WILD GOAT. 237 

loved. None but a true hunter can hope to secure the Beden, 
and even all the knowledge, patience, and energy of the best 
hunters are tried before they can kill their prey. It was there- 
fore no matter of wonder that Isaac should be surprised when 
he thought that he heard Esau return so soon from the hunting- 
grounds. *' How is it that thou hast found it so quickly, my 
son?" 

There are few animals more wary than the Beden, and even 
the chamois ot the Alps does not exercise the finest qualities of 
a hunter more than does the Beden of Palestine. It is gifted 
with very keen eyes, which can discern the approach of an 
enemy long before its grey coat and curved horns can be dis- 
tinguished from the stones and gnarled bOughs of the mountain 
side. And, even if the enemy be not within range of the animal's 
sight, its nostrils are so keen that it can detect a man by scent 
alone at a considerable distance. Like all gregarious animals, 
the Beden insures the safety of the flock by stationing sentries, 
which are posted on places that command the whole surrounding 
country, and to deceive the watchful senses of these wary 
guardians tests all the qualities of the hunter. 

The dawn of day is the time that is generally chosen for 
approaching a herd, because the animals are then feeding, and 
if the hunter can manage to approach them against the wind, he 
may chance to come within range. Should however the wind 
change its direction, he may quietly walk home again, for at the 
first breath of the tainted gale the sentinels utter their shrill 
whistle of alarm, and the whole party dash off with a speed that 
renders pursuit useless. 

The horns of the Beden are of very great size, and from their 
bold curves, with the large rings and ridges which cover their 
front, are remarkably handsome objects. In their own country 
they are in great request as handles to knives, and even in 
England they may be occasionally seen serving as handles 
to carving-knives and forks. 

As to the word Ako, which occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, together 
with other animals, and is rendered as "Wild Goat," there is 
so much doubt about the correct translation that I can do no 
more than mention that the Jewish Bible follows our authorized 
edition in translating Ako as Wild Goat, but adds the doubtful 
mark to the word. 



238 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 




THE DEER. 



The Hart and Hind of Scripture — Species of Deer existing in Palestine — Earliest 
mention of the Hind — The Hart classed among the clean animals — Passages 
alluding to its speed — Care of the mother for her young, and her custom of 
secreting it — Tameable character of the Deer — 



We now come to the Deer which are mentioned in Scripture. 
There are not many passages in which they are mentioned, and 
one of them is rather doubtful, as we shall see when we come 
to it. . 

There is no doubt that the two words Hart and Hind (in the 
Hebrew Ayzal and Ayzalah) represent Deer of some kind, and 
the question is to find out what kind of Deer is signified by 
these words. I think that we may safely determine that no 
particular species is meant, but that under the word Ayzal are 



THE WILD GOAT. 



239 




comprehended any 
kinds of Deer that 
inhabit Palestine, 
~~ and were likely to 

be known to those to w horn the 
earlier Scriptures were addressed. 
That some kind of Deer was plen- 
tiful is evident from the references which are made to 
it, and specially by the familiar word Ajala or Ayala, 
as it is pronounced, which signifies the Deer-ground or 
pasture. But the attempt to discriminate between one species and 
another is simply impossible, and the more careful the search the 
more impracticable the task appears. 

As far as can be ascertained, at least two kinds of Deer inhab- 
ited Palestine in the earlier days of the Jewish history, one 
belonging to the division which is known by its branched 
horns, and the other to that in which the horns are flat or pal- 
mated over the tips. Examples of both kinds are familiar to us 
under the titles of the Ked Deer and the Fallow Deer, and it 
is tolerably certain that both these animals were formerly found 



240 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



in Palestine, or that at all events the Deer which did exist there 
were so closely allied to them as to be mere varieties occasioned 
by the different conditions in which they were placed. 

We will now proceed to the various passages in which the 
Hart and Hind are mentioned in the Bible. 




FALLOW-DEEB, OR HIND OF SCRIFTURK. 



As might be expected, we come upon it among the number oi 
the beasts which divided the hoof and chewed the cud, and 
were specially indicated as fit for food ; see Deut. xii 15 : 
" Notwithstanding thou mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates, 
.... the unclean and the clean may eat thereof, as of the roe- 
buck, and as of the hart." 

There is, however, an earlier mention of the word in Gen. 
xlix. 21. It occurs in that splendid series of imagery in which 




A CiUIET SI'UT. 



^42 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANtMAlS. 

Jacob blesses his sons, and prophesies their future, each image 
serving ever afterwards as the emblem of the tribe : " Naphtali 
is a hind let loose : he giveth goodly words ; " — or, according to 
the Jewish Bible, " Naphtali is a hind sent forth : he giveth 
sayings of pleasantness." Now, such an image as this would 
never have been used, had not the spectacle of the "hind let 
loose" been perfectly familiar to the eyes both of the dying 
patriarch and his hearers, and equally so with the lion, the ass, 
the vine, the serpent, and other objects used emblematically in 
the same prophetic poem. 

The excellence of the Hart's flesh is shown by its occurrence 
among the animals used for King Solomon's table ; see 1 Kings 
iv. 23, a passage which has: been quoted several times, and 
therefore need only be mentioned. 

Allusion is made to the speed and agility of the Deer in 
several passages. See, for example, Isa. xxxv. 6 : " Then shall 
the lame man leap as an hart, and the tongue of the dumb 
sing." Again, in 2 Sam. xxii. 33, 34 : " God is my strength and 
power : and He maketh my way perfect. 

" He maketh my feet like hinds' feet : and setteth me upon 
my high places." 

J^early four hundred years afterwards we find Habakkuk 
using precisely the same image, evidently quoting David's Psalm 
of Thanksgiving : — " Yet I will rejoice i-n the Lord, 1 will joy in 
the God of my salvation. 

" The Lord God is my strength, and He will make my feet 
like hinds' feet, and He will make me to walk upon mine high 
places.", (iii. 18, 19.) 

A passage of a similar character may be found in Solomon's 
Song, ii. 8, 9 : " The voice of my beloved ! behold, he cometh 
leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the hills. 

" My beloved is like a roe or a young hart." 

There is one passage in the Psalms which is familiar to us in 
many ways, and not the least in that it has been chosen as the 
text -for so many well-known anthems. " As the hart panteth 
after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, God. 

" My .soul thirsteth for God, for the living God : when shall I 
come and appear before God ? " (Ps. xlii. 1, 2.) 

Beautiful as this passage is, it cannot be fully understood 
without the context. 




RED DEER AND FAWN. 



244 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

David wrote this psalm before he had risen to royal power, 
and while he was fleeing from his enemies from place to place, 
and seeking an uncertain shelter in the rock-caves. In verse 6 
he enumerates some of the spots in which he has been forced to 
reside, far away from the altar, the priests, and the sacrifice. 
He has been hunted about from place to place by his enemies 
as a stag is hunted by the hounds, and his very soul thirsted 
for the distant Tabernacle, in which the Shekinah, the visible 
presence of God, rested on the mercy-seat between the golden 
cherubim. 

Wild and unsettled as was the early life of David, this was 
ever the reigning thought in his mind, and there is scarcely a 
psalm that he wrote in which we do not find some allusion 
to the visible presence of God among men. Xo matter what 
might be the troubles through which he had to pass, even 
though he trod the valley of the shadow of death, the thought 
of his God was soothing as water to the hunted stag, and in 
that thought he ever found repose. Through all his many trials 
and adversities, through his deep remorse for his sins, through 
his wounded paternal affections, through his success and pro- 
sperity, that one thought is the ruling power. He begins his 
career with it when he opposed Goliath : " Thou comest to me 
with a sword, and with a spear, and with a shield : but I come 
to thee in the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of the armies 
of Israel'* He closes his career with the same thought, and, in 
the " last words " that are recorded, he charged his son to keep 
the commandments of the Lord, that he might do wisely all that 
he did. 

We now come to another point in the Deer's character; 
namely, the watchful care of the mother over her young. She 
always retires to som« secret place when she instinctivelj 
knows that the birth is at hand, and she hides it from aU eyes 
until it is able to take care of itself. By some strange instinct, 
the little one, almost as soon as it is born, is able to comprehend 
the signals of its mother, and there is an instance, well known 
to naturalists, where a newly-born Deer, hardly an hour oM, 
crouched low to the earth in obedience to a light tap on its 
shoulder from its mother's hoof. She, with the intense watch- 
fulness of her kind, had seen a possible danger, and so warned 
her young one to hide itself. 



THE WILD GOAT. 



245 



There is scarcely any animal so watchful as the female Deer, 
! all hunters know by practical experience. It is comparatively 




THE LEADER OF THE HERD. 



easy to deceive the stag who leads the herd, but to evade the 
eyes and ears of the hinds is a very different business, and 



246 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

taxes all tlie resources of a practised hunter. If they take such 
care of the herd in general, it may be imagined that their 
watchfulness would be multiplied tenfold when the object of 
their anxiety is their own young. 

Tt is in allusion to this well-known characteristic that a 
passage in the Book of Job refers : " Knowest thou the time 
when the wild goats of the rock bring forth ? or canst thou mark 
when the hinds do calve?" (xxxix. 1.) A similar image is used 
in Psa. xxix. 9. After enumerating the wonders that are done 
by the voice of the Lord, the thunders and rain torrents, 
the devastating tempests, the forked lightning, and the earth- 
quake "that shaketh the wilderness of Kadesh," the Psalmist 
proceeds : " The voice of the Lord maketh the hinds to calve, 
and discovereth the forests," — this being as mysterious to the 
writer as the more conspicuous wonders which he had pre- 
viously mentioned. 

So familiar to the Hebrews was the watchful care which the 
female Deer exercised over her young, that it forms the subject 
of a powerful image in one of Jeremiah's mournful prophecies : 
" Yea., the hind also calved in the field, and forsook it, because 
there was no grass." (xiv. 5.) To those who understand the habits 
of the animal, this is a most telling and picturesque image. In 
the first place, the Hind, a wild animal that could find food 
where less active creatures would starve, was reduced to such 
straits that she was obliged to remain in the fields at the time 
when her young was born, instead of retiring to some sheltered 
spot, according to her custom. And when it was born, instead 
of nurturing it carefully, according to the natural maternal 
instinct, she was forced from sheer hunger to abandon it in 
order to find a sufficiency of food for herself 

That the Deer could be tamed, and its naturally affectionate 
disposition cultivated, is evident from a passage in the Proverbs 
(v. 18, 19) : " Let thy fountain be blessed : and rejoice with the 
wife of thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and pleasant 
roe." 

We might naturally expect that the Eabbinical writers would 
have much to say on the subject of the Hart and Hind. Among 
much that is irrelevant to the object of the present work there 
are a few passages that deserve mention. Alluding to the 
annual shedding of the Deer's horns, there is a proverb respect- 



THE WILD GOAT. 



247 



ing one who ventures his money too freely in trade, that " he has 
hung it on the stag's horns," meaning thereby that he will never 




THK WATCHFUL DOE. 



see it again. It is remarkable that in Western Africa there is a 
proverb of a similar character, the imprudent merchant being told 
to look for his money in the place where Deer shed their horns. 



248 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 




A KNEELING CAMEL. 



THE CAMEL. 

CHAPTER I. 

The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing them — Value of the 
Camel in the East — Thirst-enduring capability — The hump, and its use to the 
animal — The Camel as a beast of draught and burden — How the Camel is laden 
— Camels for riding — Difficulty of sitting a Camel — A rough-paced steed — Method 
of guiding the Camel — The swift dromedary — Young Camels and their appear- 
ance — The deserted Camel. 



Before treating of the Scriptural references to the Camel, it 
will be as well to clear the ground by noticing that two distinct 
species of Camel are known to zoologists ; namely, the common 
Camel (Camelus dromedarius), which has one hump, and the 
Bactri?.n Camel (Caviehs Bactrianus), which has two of these 
curious projections. There is a popular but erroneous idea that 
the dromedary and the Camel are two distinct animals, the latter 
being distinguished by its huge hump, whereas the fact is, that 
the dromedary is simply a lighter and more valuable breed of 
the one-humped Camel of Arabia, the two-humped Bactrian 
Camel being altogether a different animal, inhabiting Central 
Asia, Thibet, and China. 



THE CAMEL. 249 

The Camel is still one of the most valued animals that inhabit 
Palestine, and in former times it played a part in Jewish history 
scarcely inferior to that of the ox or sheep. We shall, there- 
fore, devote some space to it. 

In some parts of the land it even exceeded in value the 
sheep, and was infinitely more useful than the goat. At the 
very beginning of Jewish history we read of this animal, and it 
is mentioned in the New Testament nearly two thousand years 




JACOB LEAVICS LABAN AND RETURNS TO CANAAN WITH HIS CAMELS, SHEEP, AND CATTLE 

after we meet with it in the Book of Genesis. The earliest 
mention of the Camel occurs in Gen. xii. 16, where is related 
the journey of Abram : " He had sheep, and oxen, and he-asses, 
and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she- asses, and camels." 
Belonging, as he did, to the nomad race which li^es almost 
wholly on the produce of their herds, Abram needed Camels, 
not only for their milk, and, for all we know, for their flesh, but 
for their extreme use as beasts of burden, without which he 
could never have travelled over that wild and pathless land. 
The whole of Abram's outer life was exactly that of a Bedouin 
sheikh of the present day, in whom we find reproduced the 
II* 



250 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ASIMALS. 



habits, the tone of thought, and the very verbiage of the ancient 
Scriptures. 

Many years afterwards, when the son of his old age was 
desirous of marrying a wife of his own kindred, we find that he 
sent his trusted servants with ten of his Camels to Mesopotamia, 
and it was by the offering of water to these Camels, that Eebekah 
was selected as Isaac's wife (see Gen. xxiv. 10, 19). In after 
days, when Jacob was about to leave Laban, these animals are 
mentioned as an important part of his wealth : " And th^i man 
increased exceedingly, and had much cattle, and maid-servants, 
and men-servants, and camels, and asses" (Gen. xxx. 43). 

It is thought worthy of mention in the sacred narrative that 
Job had three thousand, and afterAvards six thousand Camels 
(Job i. 3, and xlii. 12) ; that the Midianites and Amalekites pos- 
sessed camels without number, as the sand by the seaside. 




A CAMP IN THE DESERT. 



They were valuable enough to be sent as presents from one 
potentate to another. For example, when Jacob went to meet 
Esau, he gave as his present two hundred and twenty sheep, the 
same number of goats, fifty oxeu, thirty asses, and sixty camels, 
i.e. thirty mothers, each with her calf They were important 
enough to be guarded by men of position. In 1 Chron. xxvii 30, 
we find that the charge of David's Camels was confided to one 



THE CAMEL. 251 

of his officers, Obil the Ishniaelite, who, from his origiu, init^lit 
be supposed to be skilful in the management of these animals. 
Bochart, however, conjectures that the word Obil ought U) be 
read as Abal, i.e. the camel-keeper, and that the passage would 
therefore read as follows : " Over the camels was an Ishmaelitish 
camel-keeper." 

We will now proceed to the uses of the Camel, and first take 
it in the light of food. 

By the Mosaic law, the Camel was a forbidden animal, l)e- 
cause it did not divide the hoof, although it chewed the cud. 
Yet, although the Jews might not eat its flesh, they probably 
used the milk for food, as they do at the present day. No 
distinct Scriptural reference is made to the milk of the Camel ; 
but, as the Jews of the present day are quite as fastidious as 
their ancestors in keeping the Mosaic law, we are justified in 
concluding that, although they would not eat the flesh of the 
animal, they drank its milk. At the present time, the milk is 
used, like that of the sheep, goat, and cow, both in a fresh and 
curdled state, the latter being generally preferred to the former. 
A kind of cheese is made from it, but is not much to the taste 
of the European traveller, on account of the quantity of salt 
which is put in it. Butter is churned in a very simple manner, 
the fresh milk being poured into a skin bag, and the bag beaten 
with a stick until the butter makes its appearance. 

That it was really used in the patriarchal times is evident 
by the passage which has already been mentioned, where Jacob 
is related to have brought as a present to his brother Esau tliirty 
milch Camels, together with their young. So decided a stress 
would certainly not have been laid upon the fact that the animals 
were milch Camels unless the milk were intended for use. 

Perhaps the use of the Camel's milk might be justifled by 
saying that the prohibition extended only to eating and not to 
drinking, and that therefore the milk might be used though the 
flesh was prohibited. 

There was another mode in which the Camel might be used 
by travellers to sustain life. 

The reader is probably aware that, even in the burning climate 
LQ which it dwells, the Camel is able to go for a long time with- 
out drinking, — not that it requires less liquid nourishment than 



252 STORY OF THE BIBLE AyUIALS. 

other animals, but that it is able, by means of its internal con- 
struction, to imbibe at one draught a quantity of water which 
will last for a considerable time. It is furnished with a series of 
cells, into which the water runs as fast as it is drunk, and in which 
it can be kept for some time without losing its life-preserving 
qualities. As much as twenty gallons have been imbibed by a 
Camel at one draught, and this amount will serve it for several 
days, as it has the power of consuming by degrees the water 
which it has drunk in a few minutes. 

This curious power of the Camel has often proved to be the 
salvation of its owner. It has often happened that, when 
travellers have been passing over the desert, their supply of 
water has been exhausted, partly by the travellers and partly by 
the bui-ning heat which causes it to evaporate through the pores 
of the goat-skin bottle in which it was carried. Then the next 
well, where they had intended to refill their skins and refresh 
themselves, has proved dry, and the whole party seemed doomed 
to die of thirst. 

Under these circumstances, only one chance of escape is left 
them. They kill a Camel, and from its stomach they procure 
water enough to sustain life for a little longer, and perhaps to 
enable them to reach a well or fountain in which water still 
remains. The water which is thus obtained is unaltered, except 
by a greenish hue, the result of mixing with the remains of 
herbage in the cells. It is, of course, very disagreeable, but 
those who are dying from thirst cannot afford to be fastidious, 
and to them the water is a most delicious draught. 

It is rather curious that, if any of the water which is taken 
out of a dead Camel can be kept for a few days, both the green 
hue and the unpleasant flavour disappear, and the water 
becomes fresh, clear, and limpid. So wonderfully well do the 
internal cells preserve the water, that after a Camel has been 
dead for ten days — and in that hot climate ten days after death 
are equal to a month here — the water within it has been quite 
pure and drinkable. 

Many persons believe in the popular though erroneous idea 
that the Camel does not require as much water as ordinary 
animals. He wiU see, however, from the foregoing account that 
it needs quite as much water as the horse or the ox, but that it 
possesses the capability of taking in at one time as much as 




A GRATEFUL SHADE 



254 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

either of these auimals would drink in several days. So fai 
from being independent of water, there is no animal that requires 
it more, or displays a stronger desire for it. A thirsty Camel 
possesses the power of scenting water at a very great distance, 
and, when it does so, its instincts conquer its education, and it 
goes off at full speed towards the spot, wholly ignoring its rider 
or driver. Many a desert spring has been discovered, and many 
a life saved, by this wonderful instinct, the animal having 
scented the distant water when its rider had lost all hope, and 
was resigning himself to that terrible end, the death by thirst. 
The sacred Zemzem fountain at Mecca was discovered by two 
thirsty Camels. 

Except by the Jews, the flesh of the Camel is eaten throughout 
Palestine and the neighbouring countries, and is looked upon as 
a great luxury. The Arab, for example, can scarcely have a 
greater treat than a Camel-feast, and looks forward to it in a state 
of wonderful excitement. He is so impatient, that scarcely is 
the animal dead before it is skinned, cut up, and the various 
parts prepared for cooking. 

To European palates the flesh of the Camel is rather un- 
pleasant, being tough, stringy, and without much flavour. The 
fatty hump is universally considered as the best part of the 
animal, and is always offered to the chief among the guests, just 
as the North American Indian offers the hump of the bison to 
the most important man in the assembly. The heart and the 
tongue, however, are always eatable, and, however old a Camel 
may be, these parts can be cooked and eaten without fear. 

The hump, or " bunch" as it is called in the Bible, has no 
connexion with the spine, and is a supplementary growth, which 
varies in size, not only in the species, but in the individual. It 
is analogous to the hump upon the shoulders of the American 
bison and the Indian zebra, and in the best-bred Camels it is the 
smallest though the finest and most elastic. 

This hump, by the way, affords one of the points by which the 
value of the Camel is decided. When it is weU fed and properly 
cared for, the hump projects boldly, and is firm and elastic to 
the touch. But if the Camel be ill, or if it be badly fed or over- 
worked, the hump becomes soft and flaccid, and in bad cases 
hangs down on one side like a thick flap of skin. Consequently, 
che dealers in Camels always try to produce their animals in the 



THE CAMEL. 255 

market with their humps well developed ; and, if they find that 
this important part does not look satisfactory, they use various 
means to give it the required fulness, inflating it with air 
l^eing the most common. In fact, there is as much deception 
among Camel-dealers in Palestine as with dog or pigeon fanciers 
i!i England. 

Here perhaps I may remark that the hump has given rise to 
some strange but prevalent views respecting the Camel. Many 
persons think that the dromedary has one hump and the Camel 
two — in fact, that they are two totally distinct animals. Now 
the fact is that the Camel of Palestine is of one species only, 
the dromedary being a lighter and swifter breed, and differing 
from the ordinary Camel just as a hunter or racer differs from 
a cart-horse. The two-humped Camel is a different species 
altogether, which will be briefly described at the end of the 
present article. 

' The Camel is also used as a beast of draught, and, as we find^ 
not only from the Scriptures, but from ancient monuments, was 
employed to draw chariots and drag the plough. Thus in Isa. 
xxi. 7 : " And he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen, a 
chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels." It is evident that in 
this passage some chariots were drawn by Camels and some by 
asses. It is, however, remarkable that in Kennard's " Eastern 
Experiences, these two very useful animals are mentioned as 
being yoked together : " We passed through a fertile country, 
watching the fellaheen at their agricultural labours, and not a 
little amused at sometimes remarking a very tall camel and a 
very small donkey yoked together in double harness, dragging a 
plough through the rich brown soil." Camels drawing chariots 
are still to be seen in the Assyrian sculptures. In Palestine — 
at all events at the present time — the Camel is seldom if ever 
used as a beast of draught, being exclusively employed 'for bear- 
ing burdens and carrying riders. 

Taking it first as a beast of burden, we find several references 
in different parts of the Scriptures For example, see 2 Kings 
riii. 9 : "So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present with 
him, even of every good thing of Damascus, forty camels' 
burdea." Again, in 1 Chron. xii. 40 : " Moreover they that were 
uigh them, even unto Issachar and Zebulun and :NaplitaU, 



266 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

fcroiight bread on asses, and on camels, and on mules, and on 
oxen." Another allusion to the same custom is made in Isaiah : 
" They will cany their riches upon the shoulders of young asseS; 
and their treasures upon the bunches (or humps) of camels." 

The Camel can carry a considerable load, though not so much 
as is generally fancied. A sort of a pack-saddle of a very 
simple description is used, in order to keep the burden upon so 
strangely-shaped an animal. A narrow bag about eight feet 
long is made, and rather loosely stuffed with straw or similar 
material. It is then doubled, and the ends firmly sewn together, 
so as to form a great ring, which is placed OA^er the hump, and 
forms a tolerably flat surface. A wooden framework is tied on 
the pack-saddle, and is kept in its place by a girth and a 
crupper. The packages which the Camel is to carry are 
fastened together by cords, and slung over the saddle. They are 
only connected by those semi-knots called " hitches," so that, 
when the Camel is to be unloaded, all that is needed is to pull 
the lower end of the rope, and the packages fall on either side of 
the animal. So quickly is the operation of loading performed, 
that a couple of experienced men can load a Camel in very little 
more than a minute. ^ 

As is the case with the horse in England, the Camels that are 
used as beasts of burden are of a heavier, slower, and altogether 
inferior breed to those which are employed to carry riders, and 
all their accoutrements are of a ruder and meaner order, devoid 
of the fantastic ornaments with which Oriental riders are fond 
of decorating their favourite animals. 

In the large illustration are represented four of the ordinary 
Camels of burden, as they appear when laden with boughs for 
the Feast of Tabernacles. The branches are those of the Hebrew 
pine, and, as may be seen, the animals are so heavily laden with 
them that their forms are quite hidden under their leafy- 
burdens. The weight which a Camel will carry varies much, 
according to the strength of the individual, which has given rise 
to the Oriental proverb, '' As the camel, so the load." But an 
animal of ordinary strength is supposed to be able to carry from 
five to six hundred pounds for a short journey, and half as much 
for a long one, — a quantity which, as the reader will see, is not 
so very great when the bulk of the animal is taken into consi- 
deration. It is remarkable that the Camel knows its own 




CAMELS LADEN WITH BOUGHS. 



258 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



powers, and instinctively refuses to move if its correct load 
be exceeded. But, when it is properly loaded, it wlQ carry its 




MORNING IN THE DESERT: STARTING OF THE CARAVAN. 

burden for hours together at exactly the same pace, and without 
seeming more fatigued than it was Avhen it started. 

The riding Camels are always of a better breed than those 
which are used for burden, and maybe divided into two classes ; 
namely, those which are meant for ordinary purposes, and those 
which are specially bred for speed and endurance. There is as 
much difference between the ordinary riding Camel and the 
swift Camel as there is between the road hack and the race- 
horse. We will first begin with the description of the common 
riding Camel and its accoutrements. 

The saddle which is intended for a rider is very different from 
the pack-saddle on which burdens are carried, and has a long 
upright projection in front, to which the rider can hold if he 
wishes it. 

The art of riding the Camel is far more difficult of accom- 
plishment than that of riding the horse, and the preliminary 
operation of mounting is not the least difficult portion of it. Of 



THE CAMEL. 259 

course, to mount a Camel while the animal is standing is im- 
possible, and accordingly it is taught to kneel until the rider is 
seated. Kneeling is a natural position with the Camel, which 
is furnished with large callosities or warts on the legs and 
breast, which act as cushions on which it may rest its great 
weight without abrading the skin. These callosities are not 
formed, as some have imagined, by the constant kneeling to 
which the Camel is subjected, but are born with it, though of 
course less developed than they are after they have been har- 
dened by frequent pressure against the hot sand. 

When the Camel kneels, it first drops on its knees, and then 
on the joints of the hind legs. Next it drops on its breast, and 
then again on the bent hind legs. In rising it reverses the pro- 
cess, so that a novice is first pitched forward, then backward, 
then forward, and then backward again, to the very great dis- 
arrangement of his garments, and the probable loss of his seat 
altogether. Then when the animal kneels he is in danger 
of being thrown over its head by the first movement, and jerked 
over its tail by the second ; but after a time he learns to keep 
his seat mechanically. 

As to the movement of the animal, it is at first almost as 
unpleasant as can be conceived, and has been described by sev. 
eral travellers, some of whose accounts will be here given. One 
well-known traveller declares that any 2)erson desiring to prac- 
tise Camel-riding can readily do so by taking a music-stool, 
screwing it up as high as possible, putting it into a cart with- 
out springs, sitting on the top of it cross-legged, and having 
the cart driven at full speed transversely over a newly-ploughed 
field. 

There is, however, iib great a difference in the gait of Camels 
as of horses, some animals having a quiet, regular, easy move- 
ment, while others are rough and high-stepping, harassing their 
riders grievously in the saddle. Even the smooth-going Camel 
is, however, very trying at first, on account of its long swinging 
strides, which are t^ken with the legs of each side alternately, 
causing the body of the rider to swing backwards and forwards 
as if he were rowing in a boat 

Those who suffer from sea-sickness are generally attacked with 
the same malady when they make their first attempts at Camel- 
riding, while even those who are proof against this particular 



260 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

form of discomfort soon begin to find that their backs are 
aching, and that the pam becomes steadily worse. Change of 
attitude is but little use, and the wretched traveller derives but 
scant comfort from the advice of his guide, who tells him to 
allow his body to swing freely, and that in a short time he will 
become used to it. Some days, however, are generally consumed 
before he succeeds in training his spine to the continual unac- 
customed movement, and he finds that, when he wakes on 
the morning that succeeds his first essay, his back is so stiff 
that he can scarcely move without screaming with pain, and 
that the prospect of mounting the Camel afresh is anything but 
a pleasant one. 

"I tried to sit erect without moving," \vrites Mr. Kennard, 
when describing his experience of Camel-riding. '' This proved 
a relief for a few minutes, but, finding the effort too great to 
continue long in this position, I attempted to recline with my 
head resting upon my hand. This last manoeuvre I found would 
not do, for the motion of the camel's hind legs was so utterly at 
variance with the motion of his fore-legs that I was jerked up- 
wards, and forwards, and sideways, and finally ended in nearly- 
rolling off altogether. 

" Without going into the details of all that I suffered for the 
next two or three days— how that on several occasions I slid 
from the camel's back to the ground, in despair of ever accus- 
toming my half-dislocated joints to the ceaseless jerking and 
swaying to and fro, and how that I often determined to trudge 
on foot over the hot desert sand all the way to Jerusalem rather 
than endure it longer — I shall merely say that the day did at 
last arrive when I descended from my camel, after many hours' 
riding, in as happy and comfortable a state of mind as if I had 
been lolling in the easiest of arm-chairs." 

A very similar description of the transition from acute and 
constant suffering to perfect ease is given by Albert Smith, who 
states that more than orice he has dozed on the back of his 
Camel, in spite of the swaying backwards and forwards to 
which his body was subjected. 

If such be the discomfort of riding a smooth-going and good- 
tempered Camel, it may be imagined that to ride a hard-going 
and cross-grained animal must be a very severe trial to an inex- 
perienced rider. A very amusing account of a ride on such a 




TliE CAMEL POoT. 



262 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Camel, and of a fall from its back, is given by Mr. Hamilton in 
his " Sinai, the Iledjaz, and Soudan : " — 

" A dromedary I had obtained at Suk Abu Sin for my own 
riding did not answer my expectations, or rather the saddle was 
badly put on — not an easy thing to do well, by the way — and 
one of my servants, who saw how out of patience I was at the 
many times I had had to dismount to have it arranged, persuaded 
me to try the one he was riding, the Sheik's present. I had my 
large saddle transferred to his beast, and, nothing doubting, 
mounted it. 

" He had not only no nose-string, but was besides a vicious 
brute, rising with a violent jerk before I was well in the saddle, 
and anxious to gain the caravan, which was a little way ahead, 
he set off at his roughest gallop. Carpets, kufieh, tarbush, all 
went off in the jolting ; at ever}^ step I was thrown a foot into 
the air, glad to come down again, bump, bump, on the saddle, by 
dint of holding on to the front pommel with the left hand, while 
the right was engaged with the bridle, which in the violence of 
the exercise it was impossible to change to its proper hand. I 
had almost reached the caravan, and had no doubt my hump- 
backed Pegasus would relax his exertions, when a camel-driver, 
one of the sons of iniquity, seeing me come up at full speed, and 
evidently quite run away with, took it into his head to come to 
my assistance. 

" I saw what he was at, and called out to him to get out of 
the way, but instead of this he stuck himself straight before me, 
stretchincr himself out like a St. Andrew's cross, with one hand 
armed with a huge club, and making most diabolical grimaces. 
Of course the camel was frightened, it was enough to frighten a 
much more reasonable being ; so, wheeling quickly round, it upsot 
my unstable equilibrium. Down I came head foremost to the 
ground, and when I looked up, my forehead streaming with 
blood, the first thing I sav/ was my Arab with the camel, which 
he seemed mightily pleased with himself for having so cleverly 
captured, while the servant who had suggested the unlucky ex- 
periment came ambling along on my easy-paced dromedary, and 
consoled me by saying that he knew it was a runaway beast, 
which there was no riding without a nose-string. 

" I now began to study the way of keepkig one's seat in such 
an emergency. An Arab, when he gallops his dromedary with 



TTIE CAMEL. 



2G3 



one of these saddles, holds hard on with the right hand to the 
back part of the seat, not to the i)ommel, and grasps the bridle 
tightly in the other. The movement of the camel in galloping 




4U V ~'-'" S^&^ -^ 
A RUNAW-VV. 

throws one violently forward, and without holding on, excepting 
on the naked back, when the rider sits behind the hump, it is 
impossible to retain one's seat. I afterwards thought myself 
lucky in not having studied this point sooner, as, from the greater 
resistance I should have offered, my tumble, since it was fated I 
should have one, would probably have been much more severe. 
It is true I might also have escaped it, but in the chapter of 
probabilities I always think a mishaj) the mo.^t probable." 



264 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 




xy ARAB SHEIK MOTJN'TED UPOK HIS CAMEL. 



It may be imagined that a fall from a Camel's back is not 
a trifle, and, even if the unskilful rider be fortunate enough to 
fall on soft sand instead of hard rock, he receives a tolerably 
severe shock, and runs no little risk of breaking a limb. For 
the average height of a Camel's back is rather more than six feet, 
while some animals measure seven feet from the ground to the 
top of the hump. 



THE CAMEL. 265 

ITiis height, however, is of material advantage to the traveller. 
In the first place it lifts him above the waves of heated air that 
are continually rolling over the sand on which the burning rays 
of the sun are poured throughout the day ; and in the second 
place it brings him within reach of the slightest breeze that 
passes above the stratum of hot air, and which comes to the 
traveller like the breath of life. Moreover, his elevated posi- 
tion enables him to see for a very great distance, which is an 
invaluable advantage in a land where every stranger may be 
a robber, and is probably a murderer besides. 

The best mode of avoiding a fall is to follow the Arab mode 
of riding, — namely, to pass one leg over the upright pommel, 
which, as has been mentioned, is a mere wooden peg or stake, 
and hitching the other leg over the dangling foot. Perhaps the 
safest, though not the most comfortable, mode of sitting is by 
crossing the legs in front, and merely grasping the pommel with 
the hands. 

Yet, fatiguing as is the seat on the Camel's back to the 
beginner, it is less so than that on the horse's saddle, inasmuch 
as in the latter case one position is preserved, while in the 
former an infinite variety of seat is attainable when the rider 
has fairly mastered the art of riding. 

The Camel is not held by the bit and bridle like the horse, 
but by a rope tied like a halter round the muzzle, and having 
a knot on the left or *' near " side. This is held in the left hand, 
and is used chiefly for the purpose of stopping the animal. The 
Camel is guided partly by the voice of its lider, and partly by 
a driving-stick, with which the neck is lightly touched on the 
opposite side to that which its rider wishes it to take. A 
pressure of the heel on the shoulder-bone tells it to quicken its 
pace, and a little tap on the head followed by a touch on the 
short ears are the signals for full speed. 

There are three different kinds of stick with which the Camel 
is driven ; one of them, a mere almond branch with the bark, 
and an oblique head, is the sceptre or emblem of sovereignty of 
the Prince of Mecca. Mr. Hamilton suggests that this stick, 
called the " mesh'db" is the original of the jackal-headed stick 
with which so many of the Egyptian deities are represented; 
and that Aaron's rod that "brought forth buds, and bloomed 
blossoms, and yielded almonds," was the mesh'ab, the almond- 

12 



266 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



branch sceptre, the emblem of his almost regal rank and au- 
thority. 




AARO> S KOD BEARS ALMONDS. 



The women mostly ride in a different manner from the men. 
Sometimes they are hardy enough to sit the animal in the same 
way as their husbands, but as a rule they are carried by the 
animal rather than ride it, sitting in great basket-like appendages 
which are slung on either side of the Camel. These constitute 
the "furniture" which is mentioned in Gen. xxxi 34. When 
Jacob left the house of Laban, to lead an independent life, 
Rachel stole her father's images, or " teraphim," and carried them 
away with her, true to her affectionate though deceptive nature, 
which impelled her to incur the guilt of robbery for the sake of 
enriching her husband with the cherished teraphim of her 
father. From the most careful researches we learn that these 
teraphim were used for divining the future, and that they were 
made in the human form. That they were of considerable size 
is evident from the fact that, when Saul was hunting after David, 
his wife Michal contrived to convey him out of the house, and 



THE CAMP.L. 267 

for a time to conceal her fraud by putting an image (or teraph) 
into the bed as a representative of her husband. Had not, 
therefore, the camel-furniture been of considerable dimensions, 
images of such a size could not be hidden, but they could 
well be stowed away in the gi-eat panniers, as long as their 



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CAMEL-RIDING. 



mistress sat upon them, after the custom of Oriental travellers 
and declined to rise on the ready plea of indisposition. 

This sort of carriage is still used for the women and children. 
"The wife and child came by in the string of camels, the 
former reclining in an immense circular box, stuffed and padded, 
covered with red cotton, and dressed with yellow worsted orna- 
ments. This family nest was mounted on a large camel. It 
seemed a most commodious and well-arranged travelling carriage, 
and very superior as a mode of camel-riding to that which our 
Sitteen rejoiced in {i.e. riding upon a saddle). The Arab wife 
could change her position at pleasure, and the child had room 
to walk about and could not fall out, the sides of the box just 
reaching to its shoulders. Various jugs and skins and articles 
of domestic use hung suspended about it, and trappings of 
fringe and finery ornamented it." 



268 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



This last sentence brings us to another point which is several 
tdmes mentioned in the Bible ; namely, the ornaments with 
which the proprietors of Camels are fond of bedizening theii 
favourite animals. 

Their leathern collars are covered with cowrie sheMs sewn on 
them in various fantastic patterns. Crescent-shaped ornaments 
are made of shells sewn on red cloth, and hung so abundantly 
upon the harness of the animal that they jingle at every step 
which it takes. Sheiks and other men of rank often have 
these ornaments made of silver, so that the cost of the entire 
trappings is very great. 




THE DELOUIi, OR SWIFT CAMEL. 



We now come to the Swift Camel, or Deloul. 

The limbs of the Beloul are long and wiry, having not an 
ounce of superfluous fat upon them, the shoulders are very broad, 
and the hump, though firm and hard, is very smaU. 

A thoroughbred Deloul, in good travelling condition, is not 



THE CAMEL. 269 

at all a pleasing animal to an ordinary eye, being a lank, gaunt, 
and ungainly-looking creature, the very conformation which 
insures its swiftness and endurance Ibeing that which detracts 
from its beauty. An Arab of the desert, however, thinks a 
good Deloul one of the finest sights in the world. As the talk 
of the pastoral tribes is of sheep and oxen, so is the talk of the 
nomads about Camels. It is a subject which is for ever on their 
lips, and a true Bedouin may be seen to contemplate the beauties 
of one of these favourite animals for hours at a time, — if his 
own, with the rapture of a possessor, or, if another's, with the 
determination of stealing it when he can find an opportunity. 

Instead of plodding along at the rate of three miles an hour, 
which is the average speed of the common Camel, the Deloul 
can cover, if lightly loaded, nine or ten miles an hour, and go on 
at the same pace for a wonderful time, its long legs swinging, 
and its body swaying, as if it were but an animated machine. 
Delouls have been reported to have journeyed for nearly fifty 
hours without a single stop for rest, during which time the 
animals must have traversed nearly five hundred miles. Such 
examples must, however, be exceptional, implying, as they do, 
an amount of endurance on the part of the rider equal to that 
of the animal ; and even a journey of half that distance is 
scarcely possible to ordinary men on Delouls. 

For the movements of the Deloul are very rough, and the 
rider is obliged to prepare himself for a long journey by belting 
himseK tightly with two leathern bands, one just under the 
arms, and the other round the pit of the stomach. Without 
these precautions, the rider would be likely to suffer serious 
injuries, and, even with them, the exercise is so severe, that an 
Arab makes it a matter of special boast that he can ride a 
Deloul for a whole day. 

A courier belonging to the Sherif of Mecca told Mr. Hamilton 
that he often went on the same aromedary from Mecca to Medina 
in forty-eight hours, the distance being two hundred and forty 
miles. And a thoroughbred Deloul will travel for seven or 
eight weeks with only four or five days of rest. 

Even at the present time, these Camels are used for the con- 
veyance of special messages, and in the remarkable Bornu king- 
dom a regular service of these animals is established, two couriers 
always travelling in company, so that if one rider or Camel 



270 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

should fail or be captured by the Arabs, who are always on the 
alert for so valuable a prey, the other may post on and carry the 
message to its destination. 

The swift dromedary, or Deloul, is mentioned several times in 
the Old Testament. One of them occurs in Isa. Ix. 6 : " The 
multitude of camels shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian 



ANOTHER MODE OF RIDING THE CAMEL. 



and Ephah." In this passage a distinction is drawn between 
the ordinary Camel and the swift dromedary, the former being 
the word " gamel," and the latter the word " beker," which is 
again used in Jer. ii. 23 : " See thy way in the valley, know 
what thou hast done : thou art a swift dromedary." 

There is a passage in the Book of Esther which looks as if it 
referred to the ordinary Camel and the swift dromedary, but 



THE CAMEL. 271 

there is considerable uncertainty about the proper rendering 
It runs as follows : *• And he wrote in king Ahasuerus' name, 
and sealed it with the king's ring, and sent letters and 
posts on horseback, and riders on mules, camels, and young 
dromedaries." 

The Jewish Bible, however, translates this passage as follows : 
" And sent letters by the runners on the horses, and riders on 
the racers, mules, and young mares." Now, the word rekesh, 
which is translated as "racer," is rendered by Buxtorf as "a 
swift horse or mule," and the word beni-rammachim, which 
is translated as "young mares," literally signifies "those born 
of mares." 

The Camel-drivers behave towards their animals with the 
curious inconsistency which forms so large a part of the Oriental 
character. 

Prizing them above nearly all earthly things, proud of them, 
and loving them after their own fashion, the drivers will talk to 
them, cheer them, and sing interminable songs for their benefit. 
Towards the afternoon the singing generally begins, and it goes 
on without cessation in a sort of monotonous hum, as Dr. Bonar 
calls it. The same traveller calls attention to a passage in 
Caussinus' " Polyhistor Symbolicus," in which the learned and 
didactic author symbolizes the maxim that more can be done by 
kindness than by blows. "The Camel is greatly taken with 
music and melody. So much so, indeed, that if it halts through 
weariness, the driver does not urge it with stripes and blows, 
but soothes it by his songs." 

Several travellers have mentioned these songs. See, for 
example, Miss Eogers' account of some Bedouins : " Their songs 
were already subdued to harmonize with their monotonous 
swinging pace, and chimed softly and plaintively with the 
tinkling of camel-bells, thus — 

" ' Dear unto me as the sight of mine eyes, 

Art thou, my Camel ! 
Precious to me as the health of my life, 

Art thou, my Camel ! 
Sweet to my ears is the sound 

Of thy tinkling bells, my Camel ! 
And sweet to thy listening ears 

Is the sound of my evening song. ' 

And so on, ad lihUum." 



272 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Sometimes a female Camel gives birth to a colt on the journey. 
In such a case, a brief pause is made, and then the train pro- 
ceeds on its journey, the owner of the Camel carrying the young 
one in his arms until the evening halt. He then gives it to its 
mother, and on the following day it is able to follow her without 
further assistance. The young Camels are almost pretty, their 
hair being paler than that of the adult animal, and their limbs 
more slender. 

Although the young Camel is better-looking than its parents, 
it is not one whit more playful. Unlike almost all other animals, 
the Camel seems to have no idea of play, and even the young 
Camel of a month or two old follows its mother with the same 
steady, regular pace which she herself maintains. 

In spite of aU the kindness with which a driver treats his 
Camels, he can at times be exceedingly cruel to them, persisting 
in over-loading and over-driving them, and then, if a Camel fall 
exhausted, removing its load, and distributing it among the 
other Camels. As soon as this is doue, he gives the signal to 
proceed, and goes on his way, abandoning the wretched animal 
to its fate — i.e. to thirst and the vultures. He will not even 
liave the humanity to kill it, but simply leaves it on the ground, 
muttering that it is " his fate ! " 



THE CAMEL. 



CHAPTER II. 

The Camel and its master — Occasional fury of the animal — A boy killed by a 
Camel — Another instance of an infuriated Camel — Theory respecting the 
Arab and his Camel — Apparent stupidity of the Camel — Its hatred of a load, 
and mode of expressing its disapprobation — Riding a Camel through the 
streets — ^A narrow escape — Ceremony of weaning a young Camel — The Camel's 
favouiite food — Structure of the foot and adaptation to locality — Difficulty 
in provisioning — Camel's hair and skin — Sal-ammoniac and Desert fuel — The 
Camel and the needle's eye — Straining at a gnat and swallowing a CameL 

We now come to the general characteristics of the Camel 

The Camels know their master well, some of them being 
much more affectionate than others. But they are liable to fits 



THE CAMEL. 273 

of strange fury, in which case even their own masters are not 
safe from them. They are also of a revengeful nature, and have 
an unpleasant faculty of treasuring up an injury until they can 
find a time of repaying it. Signor Pierotti gives a curious 
example of this trait of character. As he was going to the 
Jordan, he found a dead Camel lying on the roadside, the head 
nearly separated from the body. On inquiry he found that 
the animal had a master who ill-treated it, and had several times 
tried to bite him. One evening, after the Camels had been 
unloaded, the drivers lay down to sleep as usual. 

The Camel made its way to its master, and stamped on him 
as he slept. The man uttered one startled cry, but had no time 
for another. The infuriated Camel followed up its attack by 
grasping his throat in its powerful jaws, and shaking him to 
death. The whole scene passed so rapidly, that before the other 
drivers could come to the man's assistance he was hanging dead 
from the jaws of the Camel, who was shaking him as a dog 
shakes a rat, and would not release its victim until its head 
had been nearly severed from its body by sword-cuts. 

A similar anecdote is told by Mr. Palgrave, in his " Central 
and Eastern Arabia :" — 

" One passion alone he possesses, namely, revenge, of which 
he gives many a hideous example ; while, in carrying it out, he 
shows an unexpected degree of forethoughted malice, united mean- 
while with aU the cold stupidity of his usual character. One 
instance of this I well remember — it occurred hard by a small 
town in the plain of Baalbec, where I was at the time residing. 

" A lad of about fourteen had conducted a large camel, laden 
with wood, from that very village to another at half an hour's 
distance or so. As the animal loitered or turned out of the way, 
its conductor struck it repeatedly, and harder than it seems to 
have thought he had a right to do. But, not finding the occasion 
favourable for taking immediate quits, it * bided its time,' nor 
was that time long in coming. 

" A few days later, the same lad had to re-conduct the beast, 
but unladen, to his own village. When they were about half 
way on the road, and at some distance from any habitation, the 
camel suddenly stopped, looked deliberately round in every 
direction to assure itself that no one was in sight, and, finding 
the road clear of passers-by, made a step forward, seized the 

12* 



274 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

unlucky boy's head in its monstrous moutli, and, lifting him up 
in the air, fliung him down again on the earth, with the uppei 
part of his head completely torn off, and his brains scattered on 
the ground. Having thus satisfied its revenge, the brute quietly 
resumed its pace towards the village, as though nothing were 
the matter, till some men, who had observed the whole, though 
unfortunately at too great a distance to be able to afford timely 
help, came up and killed it. 

'' Indeed, so marked is this unamiable propensity, that some 
philosophers have ascribed the revengeful character of the Arabs 
to the great share which the flesh and milk of the camel have 
in their sustenance, and which are supposed to communicate, to 
those who partake of them over-largely, the moral or immoral 
qualities of the animal to which they belonged. I do not feel 
myself capable of pronouncing an opinion on so intricate a 
question, but thus much I can say, that the camel and its 
Bedouin master do afford so many and such divers points of 
resemblance, that I do not think our Arab of Shomer far in the 
wrong, when I once on a time heard him say, ' God created the 
Bedouin for the camel, and the camel for the Bedouin.' " 

The reader will observe that Mr. Palgrave in this anecdote 
makes reference to the stupidity of the Camel. There is no 
doubt that the Camel is by no means an intellectual animal ; but 
it is very possible that its stupidity may in a great measure be 
owing to the fact that no one has tried to cultivate its intellectual 
powers. The preceding anecdotes show clearly that the Camel 
must possess a strong memory, and be capable of exercising 
considerable ingenuity. 

Still it is not a clever animal. If its master should fall oS 
its back, it never dreams of stopping, as a well-trained horse 
would do, but proceeds at the same plodding pace, leaving his 
master to catch it if he can. Should it turn out of the way to 
crop some green thorn-bush, it will go on in the same direction, 
never thinking of turning back into the right road unless di- 
rected by its rider. Should the Camel stray, " it is a thousand 
to one that he will never find hie way back to his accustomed 
home or pasture, and the first man who picks him up will have 
no particular shyness to get over ; . . . and the losing of his old 
master and of his former cameline companions gives him no 
regret, and occasions no endeavour to find them again." 



THE CAMEL. 276 

He has the strongest objection to being laden at all, no matter 
how light may be the burden, and expresses his disapprobation 
by growling and groaning, and attempting to bite. So habitua^ 
is this conduct that if a kneeling Camel be only approached, and 
a stone as large as a walnut laid on its back, it begins to remon- 
strate in its usual manner, groaning as if it were crushed to the 
earth with its load. 

The Camel never makes way for any one, its instinct leading 
it to plod onward in its direct course. What may have been its 
habits in a state of nature no one can tell, for such a phenomenon 
as a wild Camel has never been known in the memory of man. 
There are wild oxen, wild goats, wild sheep, wild horses, and 
wild asses, but there is no spot on the face of the earth where 
the Camel is found except as the servant of man. Through 
innate stupidity, according to Mr. Palgrave, it goes straight for- 
wards in the direction to which its head happens to be pointed, 
and is too foolish even to think of stopping unless it hears the 
signal for halt. 

As it passes through the narrow streets of an Oriental city, 
laden with goods that project on either side, and nearly fill up 
the thoroughfare, it causes singular inconvenience, forcing every 
one who is in front of it to press himself closely to the wall, and 
to make way for the enormous beast as it plods along. The 
driver or rider generally gives notice by continually calling to 
the pedestrians to get out of the way, but a laden Camel rarely 
passes through a long street without having knocked down a 
man or two, or driven before it a few riders on asses who cannot 
pass between the Camel and the wall. 

One source of danger to its rider is to be found in the low 
archways which span so many of the streets. They are just 
high enough to permit a laden Camel to pass under them, biit are 
so low that they leave no room for a rider. The natives, who 
are accustomed to this style of architecture, are always ready for 
an archway, and, when the rider sees an archway which will not 
allow him to retain his seat, he slips to the ground, and remounts 
on the other side of the obstacle. 

Mr. Kennard had a very narrow escape with one of these arch 
ways. "I had passed beneath one or two in perfect safety, without 
being obliged to do more than just bend my head forward, and 
was in the act of conversing with one of m}' companions behind, 



276 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

and was therefore in a happy state of ignorance as to what was 
immediately before me, when the shouting and running together 
of the people in the street on either side made me turn my head 
quickly, but only just in time to feel my breath thrown back on 
my face against the keystone of a gateway, beneath which my 
camel, with too much way on him to be stopped immediately, 
had already commenced to pass. 

" With a sort of feeling that it was all over with me, I threw 
myself back as far as I could, and was carried through in an 
almost breathless state, my shirt-studs actually scraping along 
against the stonework. On emerging again into the open 
street, I could hardly realize my escape, for if there had been a 
single projecting stone to stop my progress, the camel would 
have struggled to get free, and my chest must have bejen 
crushed in.'* 

It will be seen from these instances that the charge of stu- 
pidity is not an undeserved one. StiU the animal has enough 
intellect to receive all the education which it needs for the service 
of man, and which it receives at a very early age. The ordinary 
Camel of burden is merely taught to follow its conductor, to 
obey the various words and gestures of command, and to endure 
a load. The Deloul, however, is more carefully trained. It is 
allowed to follow its mother for a whole year in perfect liberty. 
Towards the expiration of that time the young animal is gradually 
stinted in its supply of milk, and forced to browse for its nourish- 
ment. On the anniversary of its birth, the young Deloul is 
turned with its head towards Canopus, and its ears solemnly 
boxed, its master saying at the same time, " Henceforth drinkest 
thou no drop of milk." For this reason the newly-weaned 
Camel is called Lathim, or the " ear-boxed." It is then pre- 
vented from sucking by a simple though cruel experiment. A 
wooden peg is sharpened at both ends, and one end thrust into 
the young animal's nose. When it tries to suck, it pricks its 
mother with the projecting end, and at the same time forces the 
other end more deeply into the wound, so that the mother drives 
away her offspring, and the young soon ceases to make the 
attempt. 

The food of the Camel is very simple, being, in fact, anything 
that it can get. As it proceeds on its journey, it manages to 
browse as it goes along, bending its long neek to the groimd, and 



THE CAMEL. 



277 




PASSING A CAMEL IN A NARROW STREET OF AN EASTERN CITY, 



278 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



cropping the scanty herbage without a pause. Ca-mels have 
been known to travel for twenty successive days, passing over 
some eight hundred miles of ground, without receiving any food 
except that which they gathered for themselves by the way. 
The favourite food of the Camel is a shrub called the ghada, 
growing to six feet or so in height, and forming a feathery tuft 
of innumerable little green twigs, very slender and flexible. Ife 
is so fond of this shrub that a Camel can scarcely ever pass a 
bush without turning aside to crop it; and even though it be 
beaten severely for its misconduct, it will repeat the process at 
the next shrub that comes in sight. 

It also feeds abundantly on the thorn-bushes which grow so 
plentifully in that part of the world ; and though the thorns are 
an inch or two in length, very strong, and as- sharp as needles, 
the hard, horny palate of the animal enables it to devour them 
with perfect ease. 

There are several species of these thorn-shrubs, which are 
scattered profusely over the ground, and are, in fact, the com- 
monest growth of the place. After they die, being under the 
fierce sun of that climate, they dry up so completely, that if 
a light be set to them they blaze up in a moment, with a sharp 
cracking sound and a roar of flame, and in a moment or two are 
nothing but a heap of light ashes. No wonder was it that when 




MOSES AT THE BURNING BUSH, 



Moses saw the thorn-bush burning without being consumed he 
was struck with awe at the miracle. These withered bushes 



THE CAMEL. 



279 



fire the common fuel of the desert, giving out a fierce but brief 
heat, and then suddenly sinking into ashes. " For as the 
crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool " 
{Eccl. ^di. 6). 

The dried and withered twigs of these bushes are also eaten 
by the Camel, which seems to have a power of extracting nutri- 
ment from every sort of vegetable substance. It has been fed 




AN ARAB ENCAMPMENT. 



on charcoal, and, as has been happily remarked, could thrive on 
the shavings of a carpenter's workshop. 

Still, when food is plentiful, it is fed as regularly as can be 
managed, and generally after a rather peculiar manner. " Our 
guide," writes ]\Ir. Hamilton, in the work which has already been 
mentioned, " is an elderly man, the least uncouth of our camel- 
drivers. He has three camels in the caravan, and it was amusing 
to see his preparations for their evening's entertainment. The 



280 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

table-cloth, a circular piece of leather, was duly spread on the 
ground ; on this he poured the quantity of dourrah destined foi 
their meal, and calling his camels, they came and took each its 
place at the feast. It is quaint to see how each in his turn eats, 
so gravely and so quietly, stretching his long neck into the 
middle of the heap, then raising his head to masticate each 
mouthful; all so slowly and with such gusto, that we could 
swear it was a party of epicures sitting in judgment on one of 
Vachette's chefs d'ceuvre" 

The foregoing passages will show the reader how wonderfully 
adapted is the constitution of the Camel for the country in which 
it lives, and how indispensable it is to the inhabitants. It has 
been called " the ship of the desert," for without the Camel the 
desert would be as impassable as the sea without ships. Nc 
water being found for several days' journey together, the animal 
is able to carry within itself a supply of water which will last it 
for several days, and, as no green thing grows far from the 
presence of water, the Camel is able to feed upon the brief-lived 
thorn-shrubs which have sprung up and died, and which, from 
their hard and sharp prickles, are safe from every animal except 
the hard-mouthed CameL 

But these advantages would be useless without another — ie. 
the foot. The mixed stones and sand of the desert would ruin 
the feet of almost any animal, and it is necessary that the Camel 
should be furnished with a foot that cannot be split by heat like 
the hoof of a horse, that is broad enough to prevent the creature 
from sinking into the sand, and is tough enough to withstand 
the action of the rough and burning soil. 

Such a foot does the Camel possess. It consists of two long 
toes resting upon a hard elastic cushion with a tough and horny 
sole. This cushion is so soft that the tread of the huge animal 
is as noiseless as that of a cat, and, owing to the division of the 
toes, it spreads as the weight comes upon it, and thus gives 
a firm footing on loose ground. The foot of the moose- deer has 
a similar property, in order to enable the animal to walk upon 
the snow. 

In consequence of this structure, the Camel sinks less deeply 
into the ground than any other animal ; but yet it does sink in 
it, and dislikes a deep and loose sand, groaning at every step, 
and being wearied by the exertion of dragging its hard foot out 



THE CAMEL. 



281 



of the holes into which they sink. It is popularly thought that 
hills are impracticable to the Camel ; but it is able to climb even 
rocky ground from which a horse would recoil. Mr. Marsh, an 
American traveller, was much surprised by seeing a caravan of 




ON THE MARCH. 



fifty camels pass over a long ascent in Arabia Petrsea. The rock 
was as smooth as polished marble, and the angle was on an 
average fifteen degrees; but the whole caravan passed over it 
without an accident. 



k 



282 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The soil that a Camel most hates is a wet and muddy ground, 
on which it is nearly sure to slip. If the reader will look at a 
Camel from behind, he will see that the hinder legs are close 
together until the ankle-joint, when they separate so widely that 
the feet* are set on the ground at a considerable distance from each 
other. On dry ground this structure increases the stability of 
the animal by increasing its base ; but on wet ground the effect 
is singularly unpleasant. The soft, padded feet have no hold, 
and slip sideways at every step, often with such violence as to 
dislocate a joint and cause the death of the animal. When 
such ground has to be traversed, the driver generally passes a 
bandage round the hind legs just below the ankle-joint, so as to 
prevent them from diverging too far. 

It must be remarked, however, that the country in which the 
animal lives is essentially a dry one, and that moist and muddy 
ground is so exceptional that the generality of Camels never see 
it in their lives. Camels do not object to mud an inch or two 
deep, provided that there is firm ground below ; and they have 
been seen to walk with confident safety over pavements covered 
with mud and half-frozen snow. 

The animals can ford rivers well enough, provided that the 
bed be stony or gravelly ; but they are bad swimmers, their 
round bodies and long necks being scarcely balanced by their 
legs, so that they are apt to roll over on their sides, and in such 
a case they are sure to be drowned. When swimming is a 
necessity, the head is generally tied to the stern of a boat, or 
guided by the driver swimming in front, while another often 
clings to the tail, so as to depress the rump and elevate the 
head. It is rather curious that the Camels of the Sahara cannot 
be safely entrusted to the water. They will swim the river 
readily enough ; but they are apt to be seized with iUness after- 
wards, and to die in a few hours. 

We now come to some other uses of the CameL 

Its hair is of the greatest importance, as it is used for many 
purposes. In this country, all that we know practically of the 
Camel's hair is that it is employed in making brushes foi 
painters ; but in its own land the hair plays a really important 
part. At the proper season it is removed from the animal, 
usually by being pulled away in tufts, but sometimes by beinp 
shorn, and it is then spun by the women into strong thread. 



THE CAMEL. 283 

From this threadbare made sundry fabrics where strength is 
required and coarseness is not an objection. The " black tents " 
of the Bedouin Arabs, similar to those in which Abraham lived, 
are made of Camel's hair, and so are the rugs, carpets, and cordage 
used by the nomad tribes. Even mantles for rainy or cold 
weather are made of Camel's hair, and it was in a dress of this 
coarse and rough material that St. John the Baptist was clad. 




HAIR OF THE CAMEL. 



The best part of the Camel's hair is that which grows in tufts 
on the back and about the hump, the fibre being much longer 
than that which covers the body. There is also a little very 
fine under-wool which is carefully gathered, and, when a suffi- 
cient quantity is procured, it is spun and woven into garments. 
Shawls of this material are even now as valuable as those which 
are made from the Cachmire goat. 

The skin of the Camel is made into a sort of leather. It is 
simply tanned by being pegged out in the sun and rubbed with 
salt. 

Sandals and leggings are made of this leather, and in some 
places water-bottles are manufactured from it, the leather being 
thicker and less porous than that of the goat, and therefore 
wasting less of the water by evaporation. The bones are utilized, 
being made into various articles of commerce. 

So universally valuable is the Camel that even its dung is 
important to its owners. Owing to the substances on which the 
animal feeds, it consists of little but macerated fragments of aro- 
matic shrubs. It is much used as poultices in case of bruises 
or rheumatic pains, and is even applied with some success to 
simple fractures. It is largely employed for fuel, and the desert 
couriers use nothing else, their Camels being furnished with a 
net, so that none of this useful substance shall be lost. For this 
purpose it if. carefully collected, mixed with bits of straw, and 



284 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

made into little rolls, which are dried in th^ sun, and can then 
be laid by for any time until they are needed. 

Mixed with clay and straw, it is most valuable as a kind of 
mortar or cement with which the walls of huts are rendered 
weather-proof, and the same material is used in the better-class 
houses to make a sort of terrace on the flat roof. This must be 
waterproof in order to withstand the wet of the rainy season, 
and no material answers the purpose so well as that which has 
been mentioned. So strangely hard and firm is this composition, 
that stoves are made of it. These stoves are made like jars, and 
have the faculty of resisting the power of the inclosed fire. Even 
after it is burned it has its uses, the ashes being employed in the 
manufacture of sal-ammoniac. 

There are two passages in the New Testament which mention 
the Camel in an allegorical sense. Tlie first of these is the 
proverbial saying of our Lord, " A rich man shall hardly enter 
into the kingdom of heaven. Again I say unto you. It is easier 
for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich 
man to enter into the kingdom of God " (Matt. xix. 23, 24). 

Now, this well-known but scarcely understood passage re- 
quires some little dissection. If the reader will refer to the 
context, he will see that this saying was spoken in allusion to 
the young and wealthy man who desired to be one of the 
disciples, but clung too tightly to his wealth to accept the only 
conditions on which he could be received. His possessions were 
a snare to him, as was proved by his refusal to part with them 
at Christ's command. On his retiring, the expression was used, 
"that a rich man shall hardly (or, with difficulty) enter the 
kingdom of heaven," followed by the simile of the Camel and 
the needle's eye. 

Now, if we are to take this passage literally, we can but draw 
one conclusion from it, that a rich man can no more enter 
heaven than a camel pass through the eye of a needle, i.e. that 
it is impossible for him to do so. Whereas, in the previous 
sentence, Christ says not that it is impossible, but dif&cult 
{BvaKoXms;) for him to do so. It is difficult for a man to use his 
money for the service of God, the only purpose for which it was 
given him, and the difi&culty increases in proportion to its 
amount. But wealth in itself is no more a bar to heaven than 



THE CAMEL. 285 

intellect, health, strength, or any other gift, and, if it be rightly 
used, is one of the most powerful tools that can be used in the 
service of God. Our Lord did not condemn all wealtJiy men 
alike. He knew many; but there was only one whom He 
advised to sell his possessions and give them to the poor as the 
condition of being admitted among the disciples. 




CAHKL GOING THROUGH A "NEEDLE'S KYB." 

We will now turn to the metaphor of the Camel and the 
needle's eye. Of course it can be taken merely as a very bold 
metaphor, but it may also be understood in a simpler sense, the 
sense in which it was probably understood by those who heard 
it. In Oriental cities, there are in the large gates small and 
very low apertures called metaphorically " needle's-eyes," just 
as we talk of certain windows as " bull's-eyes." These entrances 
are too narrow for a Camel to pass through them in the ordinary 
manner, especially if loaded. When a laden Camel has to pass 
through one of these entrances, it kneels down, its load is 
removed, and then it shuffles through on its knees. " Yesterday,'' 
writes Lady Duff-Gordon from Cairo, " I saw a camel go through 



286 STORY OP THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the eye of a needle, i. e. the low-arched door of an enclosure. He 
must kneel, and bow his head to creep through ; and thus the 
rich man must humble himself." 

There is another passage in which the Camel is used by oui 
Lord in a metaphorical sense. This is the well-known sentence : 
" Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel " 
(Matt, xxiii. 24). It is remarkable that an accidental misprint 
has robbed this passage of its true force. The real translation 
is : " which strain out the gnat, and swallow the camel" The 
Greek word is BlvXl^co, which signifies to filter thoroughly ; and 
the allusion is made to the pharisaical custom of filtering liquids 
before drinking them, lest by chance a gnat or some such insect 
which was forbidden as food might be accidentally swallowed. 



THE BACTRIAN CAMEL. 



General description of the animal — Its use in mountain roads — Peculiar formation 
of the foot — Uses of a mixed breed — Its power of enduring cold— Used chiefly 
as a beast of draught — Unfitness for the plough — The cart and mode of harness- 
ing — ^The load which it can draw — Camel-skin ropes — A Rabbinical legend. 



The second kind of Camel — namely, the Bactrian species — was 
probably unknown to the Jews until a comparatively late portion 
of their history. This species was employed by the Assyrians, 
as we find by the sculptures upon the ruins, and if in no other 
way the Jews would become acquainted with them through the 
nation by whom they were conquered, and in whose land they 
abode for so long. 

The Bactrian Camel is at once to be distinguished from that 
which has abeady been described by the two humps and the 
clumsier and sturdier form. Still the skeletons of the Bactrian 
and Arabian species are so similar that none but a very skilful 
anatomist can distinguish between them, and several learned 



288 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

zoologists liave expressed an opinion, in which I entirely coin- 
cide, that the Bactrian and Arabian Camels are but simple 
varieties of one and the same species, not nearly so dissimilar 
as the greyhound and the bulldog. 

Unlike the one-humped Camel, the Bactrian species is quite at 
home in a cold climate, and walks over ice as easily as its con- 
gener does over smooth stone. It is an admirable rock-climber, 
and is said even to surpass the mule in the sureness of its tread. 
This quality is probably occasioned by the peculiar structure of 
the foot, which has an elongated toe projecting beyond the soft 
pad, and forming a sort of claw. In the winter time the riders 
much prefer them to horses, because their long legs enable them 
to walk easily through snow, in which a horse could only plunge 
helplessly, and would in all probability sink and perish. 

A mixed breed of the one-humped and the Bactrian animals is 
thought to be the best for hill work in winter time, and General 
Harlan actually took two thousand of these animals in winter 
time for a distance of three hundred and sixty miles over the 
snowy tops of the Indian Caucasus ; and though the campaign 
lasted for seven months, he only lost one Camel, and that 
was accidentally killed. Owing to its use among the hills, the 
Bactrian species is sometimes called the Mountain CameL 

It very much dislikes the commencement of spring, because 
the warm mid-day sun slightly melts the surface of the snow, 
and the frost of night converts it into a thin plate of ice. When 
the Camel walks upon this semi-frozen snow, its feet plunge 
into the soft substratum through the icy crust, against which its 
legs are severely cut. The beginning of the winter is liable to 
the same objection. 

The mixed breed which has just been mentioned must be 
procured from a male Bactrian and a female Arabian Camel. If 
the parentage be reversed, the offspring is useless, being weak, 
ill-tempered, and disobedient. 

The Bactrian Camel is, as has been mentioned, tolerant of 
cold, and is indeed so hardy an animal that it bears the severest 
winters without seeming to suffer distress, and has been seen 
quietly feeding when the thermometer has reached a tempera- 
ture several degrees below zero. Sometimes, when the cold is 
more than usually sharp, the owners sew a thick cloth round ita 
body, but even in such extreme cases the animal is left to find 



THE BACTRIAN CAMEL. 



289 



its own food as it best can. And, however severe the weather 
may be, the Bactrian Camel never sleeps under a roof. 

This Camel is sometimes employed as a beast of burden, but 
its general use is for draught. It is not often used alone for the 
plough, because it has an uncertain and jerking mode of pulling, 
and does not possess the steady dragging movement which is 
obtained by the use of the horse or ox. 




BACTRIAN CAMELS DRAWING CART. 



It is almost invariably harnessed to carts, and always in pairs. 
The mode of yoking the animals is as simple as can wcU be 
conceived. A pole runs between tliem from the front of the 
vehicle, and the Camels are attached to it by means of a pole 
which passes over their necks. Oxen were harnessed in a 
similar manner. It was probably one of these cars or chariots 
13 



290 STOET OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

that was mentioned by Isaiah in his prophecy respecting 
Assyria : — " And he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen, a 
chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels " (Isa. xxi. 7). The cars 
themselves are as simple as the mode of harnessing them, being 
almost exactly like the ox carts which have already been 
described. 

The weight which can be drawn by a pair of these Camels is 
really considerable. On a tolerably made road a good pair Df 
Camels are expected to draw from twenty-six to twenty-eight 
hundred weight, and to continue their labours for twenty or 
thirty successive days, traversing each day an average of thirty 
miles. It is much slower than the Arabian Camel, seldom going 
at more than two and a half miles per hour. If, however, the 
vehicle to which a pair of Bactrians are harnessed were well 
made, the wheels truly circular, and the axles kept greased so as 
to diminish the friction, there is no doubt that the animals could 
draw a still greater load to longer distances, and with less 
trouble to themselves. As it is, the wheels are wretchedly 
fitted, and their ungreased axles keep up a continual creaking 
that is most painful to an unaccustomed ear, and totally un- 
heeded by the drivers. 

The hair of the Bactrian Camel is long, coarse, and strong; 
and, like that of the Arabian animal, is made into rough cloth. 
It is plucked off by hand in the summer time, when it naturally 
becomes loose in readiness for its annual renewal, and the weight 
of the entire crop of hair ought to be about ten pounds. The 
skin is not much valued, and is seldom used for any purpose 
except for making ropes, straps, and thongs, and is not thought 
worth the trouble of tanning. The milk, like that of the 
Arabian animal, is much used for food, but the quantity is very 
trifling, barely two quarts per diem being procured from each 
Camel. 

There is bat little that is generally interesting in the Eabbi- 
nical writers on the Camel. They have one proverbial saying 
upon the shortness of its ears. When any one makes a request 
that is likely to be refused, they quote the instance of the 
Camel, who, it seems, was dissatisfied with its appearance, and 
asked for horns to match its long ears. The result of the re- 
quest was, that it was deprived of its ears, and got no horns. 



THE HORSE. 291 



THE HORSE. 

The Hebrew words which signify the Horse — The Horse introduced into Palestine 
from Egypt — Similarity of the war-horse of Scripture and the Arab horse of 
the present day — Characteristics of the Horse — Courage and endurance of the 
Horse — Hardness of its unshod hoofs — Love of the Arab for his Horse — Diffi- 
culty of purchasing the animal — The Horse prohibited to the Israelites — 
Solomon's disregard of the edict — The war-chariot, its form and use — Probable 
consti-uction of the iron chariot — The cavalry Horse — Lack of personal interest 
in the animal. 

Several Hebrew words are used by the various Scriptural 
writers to signify the Horse, and, like our own terms of horse, 
mare, pony, charger, &c., are used to express the different quali- 
ties of the animal. The chief distinction of the Horse seemed 
to lie in its use for riding or driving, the larger and heavier 
animals being naturally required for drawing the weighty spring- 
less chariots. The chariot horse was represented by the word 
Sus, and the cavalry horse by the word Parash, and in several 
passages both these words occur in bold contrast to each other. 
See, for example, 1 Kings iv. 26, &c. 

Among the many passages of Scripture in which the Horse is 
mentioned, there are few which do not treat of it as an adjunct 
of war, and therefore it is chiefly in that light that we must 
regard it. 

The Horse of the Scriptures was evidently a similar animal 
to the Arab Horse of the present day, as we find not only from 
internal evidence, but from the sculptures and paintings which 
still remain to tell us of the vanished glories of Egypt and 
Assjrria. It is remarkable, by the way, that the first mention of 
the Horse in the Scriptures alludes to it as an Egyptian animal. 
During the terrible famine which Joseph had foretold, the 
Egyptians and the inhabitants of neighbouring countries were 
unable to find food for themselves or fodder for their oattle, and, 
accordingly, they sold all their beasts for bread. "And they 



292 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



brouglit their cattle unto Joseph, and Joseph gave them bread 
in exchange for horses and the flocks, and for the cattle of herds, 
and for the asses, and he fed them with bread for all their cattle 
for that year." 

This particular breed of Horses is peculiarly fitted for the 
purposes of war, and is much less apt for peaceful duties than 
the heavier and more powerful breeds, which are found in dif- 
ferent parts of the world. It is remarkable for the flexible 
agility of its movements, which enable it to adapt itself to 
every movement of the rider, whose intentions it seems to divine 




TRIAL OP ARAB HORSES. 



by a sort of instinct, and who guides it not so much by the 
bridle as by the pressure of the knees and the voice. Examples 
of a similar mode of guidance may be seen on the well-known 
frieze of the Parthenon, where, in the Procession of Horsemen, 
the riders may be seen directing their steeds by touching the 
side of the neck with one finger, thus showing their own skill 
and the well-trained quality of the animals which they ride. 

Its endurance is really wonderful, and a horse of the Koch- 
lani breed will go through an amount of work which is almost 
incredible. Even the trial by which a Horse is tested is so 




AN AKAi; ilOK-i; OF THE KOCH 



294 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

severe, that any other animal would be either killed on the spot 
or ruined for life. When a young mare is tried for the first 
time, her owner rides her for some fifty or sixty miles at full 
speed, always finishing by swimming her through a river. After 
this trial she is expected to feed freely ; and should she refuse 
her food, she is rejected as an animal unworthy of the name of 
Kochlani. 

Partly from native qualities, and partly from constant associa- 
tion with mankind, the Arab Horse is a singularly intelligent 
animal. In Europe we scarcely give the Horse credit for the 
sensitive intelligence with which it is endowed, and look upon 
it rather as a machine for draught and carriage than a com- 
panion to man. The Arab, however, lives with his horse, and 
finds in it the docility and intelligence which we are accus- 
tomed to associate with the dog rather than the Horse. It 
will follow him about and come at his caU. It wiU stand 
for any length of time and await its rider without moving. 
Should he fall from its back, it will stop and stand patiently 
by him until he can remount ; and there is a well-authenticated 
instance of an Arab Horse whose master had been wounded in 
battle, taking him up by his clothes and carrying him away to a 
place of safety. 

Even in the very heat and turmoil of the combat, the true 
Arab Horse seems to be in his true element, and fully deserves 
the splendid eulogium in the Book of Job (xxxix. 19 — 25) ; 
*' Hast thou given the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his 
neck with thunder ? 

" Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper ? the glory 
of his nostrils is terror. 

" He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength : he 
goeth on to meet the armed men. 

" He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ; neither turneth 
he back from the sword. 

" The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the 
shield. 

" He walketh the ground with fierceness and rage : neither 
believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. 

" He saith among the trumpets. Ha, ha ; and he smeUeth the 
battle afar ofi] the thunder of the captains, and the shouting." 

In another passage an allusion is made to the courage of the 



THE HORSE. 



295 



Horse, and its love for the battle. " I hearkened and heard, but 
they spake not aright : no man repented him of his wickedness, 
saying, What have I done ? Every one turned to his course, as 




THE WAR HORSE. 



the horse rushetb into the battle." (Jer. viii. 6.) Even in the 
mimic battle of the djereed the Horse seems to exult in the con- 
flict as much as his rider, and wheels or halts almost without 
the slightest intimation. 

The hoofs of the Arab Horses are never shod, their owners 
thinking that that act is not likely to improve nature, and even 
among the burning sands and hard rocks the Horse treads witli 
unbroken hoof. In such a climate, indeed, an iron shoe would 
be worse than useless, as it would only scorch the hoof by day, 
and in consequence of the rapid change of temperature by day or 
night, the continual expansion and contraction of the metal would 
soon work the nails loose, and cause the shoe to fall off. 

A tender-footed Horse would be of little value, and so we 
often find in the Scriptures that the hardness of the hoof is 



296 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

reckoned among one of the best qualities of a Horse. See, for 
example, Isa. v. 28 : " Whose arrows are sharp, and all their 
bows bent, their horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint, and 
their wheels like a whirlwind." Again, in Micah iv. 13 : " Arise 
and thresh, daughter of Zion : for I will make thine horn 
iron, and I will make thy hoofs brass : and thou shalt beat in 
pieces many people." Allusion is here made to one mode of 
threshing, in which a number of Horses were turned into the 
threshing-floor, and driven about at random among the wheat, 
instead of walking steadily like the oxen. 

In Judges v. 22 there is a curious allusion to the hoofs of 
the Horse. It occurs in the Psalm of Thanksgiving sung by 
Deborah and Barak after the death of Sisera : " Then were the 
horse-hoofs broken by the means of the pranciugs, the prancings 
of their mighty ones." 

Horses possessed of the qualities of courage, endurance, and 
sureness of foot are naturally invaluable; and even at the 
present day the Arab warrior esteems above aU things a Horse 
of the purest breed, and, whether he buys or sells one, takes care 
to have its genealogy made out and hung on the animal's neck. 

As to the mare, scarcely any inducement is strong enough to 
make an Arab part with it, even to a countryman, and the sale 
of the animal is hindered by a number of impediments which 
in point of fact are almost prohibitory. Signer Pierotti, whose 
long residence in Palestine has given him a deep insight into 
the character of the people, speaks in the most glowing terms 
of the pure ilrab Horse, and of its, inestimable value to its 
owner. Of the difiiculties with which the sale of the animal is 
suiTOunded, he gives a very amusing account : — 

" After this enumeration of the merits of the horse, I will 
describe the manner in which a sale is conducted, choosing the 
case of the mare, as that is the more valuable animal. The price 
varies with the purity of blood of the steed, and the fortunes of 
its owner. When he is requested to fix a value, his first reply is, 
• It is yours, and belongs to you, I am your servant ; ' because, 
perhaps, he does not think that the question is asked with 
any real design of purchasing ; when the demand is repeated, he 
either makes no answer or puts the question by ; at the third 
demand he generally responds rudely with a sardonic smile, 
which is not a pleasant thing to see, as it is a sign of anger ; and 




rSSP"#4&^=^A 



AllAB HORSES. 



298 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

then says that he would sooner sell his family than his mare. 
This remark is not meant a-s a mere jest ; for it is no uncommon 
thing for a Beda\vy to give his parents as hostages raiher than 
separate himself from his friend. 

" If, however, owing to some misfortime, he determines on 
selling his mare, it is very doubtful whether he or his parents 
will allow her to leave their country without taking the pre- 
caution to render her unfit for breeding. 

" There are many methods of arranging the sale, all of which 
I should like to describe particularly ; however, I will confine 
mycelf to a general statement. Before the purchaser enters upon 
the question of the price to be paid, he must ascertain that the 
parents, friends, and allies of the owners give their consent to 
the sale, without which some difficulty or other may arise, or 
perhaps the mare may be stolen from her new master. He must 
also obtain an unquestionable warranty that she is fit for breed- 
ing purposes, and that no other has a prior claim to any part of 
her body. This last precaution may seem rather strange, but it 
arises from the following custom. It sometimes happens that, 
when a Bedawy is greatly in want of money, he raises it most 
easily by selling a member of his horse ; so that very frequently 
a horse belongs to a number of owners, one of whom has pur- 
chased the right fore-leg, another the left, another the hind-leg, 
or the tail, or an ear, or the like ; and the proprietors have each a 
proportionate interest in the profits of its labour or sale. 

" So also the offspring are sold in a similar manner ; some- 
times only the first-born, sometimes the first three ; and then it 
occasionally happens that two or three members of the foal are, 
as it were, mortgaged. Consequently, any one who is ignorant 
of this custom may find that, after he has paid the price of the 
mare to her supposed owner, a third person arises who demands 
to be paid the value of his part ; and, if the purchaser refuse to 
comply, he may find himself in a very unpleasant situation, 
without any possibility of obtaining help from the local govern- 
ment. Whoever sells his mare entirely, without reserving to 
himself one or two parts, must be on good terms with the confe- 
derate chiefs in the neighbourhood, and must have obtained then 
formal sanction, otherwise they would universally despise him, 
and .perhaps lie in wait to kill him, so that his only hope of 
escape would be a disgraceful flight, just as if he had committed 



300 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

some great crime. It is an easier matter to purchase a stallion j 
but even in this case the above formalities must be observed. 

"These remarks only apply to buying horses of the purest 
blood ; those of inferior race are obtained without difficulty, and 
at fair prices." 

For some reason, perhaps the total severance of the Israelites 
fi'oni the people among whom they had lived so long in cap- 
tivity, the use of the Horse, or, at all events, the breeding of it, 
wtis forbidden to the Israelites ; see Deut. x\d. 16. After 
prophesying that the Israelites, when they had settled them- 
selves in the Promised Land, would want a king, the inspired 
writer next ordains that the new king must be chosen by 
Divine command, and must belong to one of the twelve tribes. 
He then proceeds as follows : — " But he shall not multiply 
horses to himself, nor cause the people . to return to Egypt, to 
the end that he should multiply horses : forasmuch as the Lord 
hath said unto you, Ye shall henceforth return no more that 
way." 

The foresight of this prophetical wTiter was afterwards shown 
by the fact that many kings of Israel did send to Egypt for 
Horses, Egypt being the chief source from which these animals 
were obtained. And, judging from the monuments to which 
reference has been made, the Horse of Egypt was precisely the 
same animal as the Arab Horse of the present day, and was 
probably obtained from nomad breeders. 

In spite of the prohibitory edict, both David and Solomon 
used Horses in battle, and the latter supplied himself largely 
from Egypt, disregarding as utterly the interdict against plu- 
rality of Horses as that against plurality of wives, which 
immediately follows. 

David seems to have been the first king who established a 
force of chariots, and this he evidently did for the purpose of 
action on the flat gTOunds of Palestine, where infantry were at a 
great disadvantage when attacked by the dreaded chariots ; yet 
he did not controvert the law by multiplying to himself Horses, 
or even by importing them from Egj-pt ; and when he had an 
opportunity of adding to his army an enormous force of chariots, 
he only employed as many as he thought were sufficient for his 
purpose. After he defeated Hadadezer, and had taken from 
him a thousand chariots with their Horses* together with seven 



Tin;: HORSE, 



301 




302 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

hundred cavalry, he houghed all the Horses except those which 
were needed for one hundred chariots. 

Solomon, however, was more lax, and systematically broke 
the ancient law by multiplying Horses exceedingly, and sending 
to Egypt for them. We learn from 1 Kings iv. 26 af the enor- 
mous establishment which he kept up both for chariots and 
cavalry. Besides those which were given to him as tribute, he 
purchased both chariots and their Horses from Egypt and Syria. 

Chariots were far more valued in battle than horsemen, pro- 
bably because their weight made their onset irresistible against 
infantry, who had no better weapons than bows and spears. 
The slingers themselves could make little impression on the 
chariots; and even if the driver, or the warrior who fought in 
the chariot, or his attendant, happened to be killed, the weighty 
machine, with its two Horses, still went on its destructive way. 

Of their use in battle we find very early mention. Foi 
example, in Exod. xiv. 6 it is mentioned that Pharaoh made ready 




PHARAOH PURSUES THE ISRAELITES WITH CHARIOTS AND HORSES, AND THE SEA COVERS 

THEM. 

his chariot to pursue the Israelites; and in a subsequent part 
of the same chapter we find that six hundred of the Egyptian 



THE HORSE. 303 

chariot force accompanied their master in the pursuit, and that 
the whole army was delayed because the loss of the chariot 
wheels made them drive heavily. 

Then in the familiar story of Sisera and Jael the vanquished 
general is mentioned as alighting from his chariot, in which he 
would be conspicuous, and taking flight on foot ; and, after his 
death, his mother is represented as awaiting his arrival, and 
saying to the women of the household, " Why is his charict so 
long in coming ? Why tarry the wheels of his chariot ? " 

During the war of conquest which Joshua led, the chariot 
plays a somewhat important part. As long as the war was 
carried on in the rugged mountainous parts of the land, no men- 
tion of the chariot is made ; but when the battles had to be 
fought on level ground, the enemy brought the dreaded chariots 
to bear upon the Israelites. In spite of these adjuncts, Joshua 
won the battles, and, unlike David, destroyed the whole of the 
Horses and burned the chariots. 

Many years afterwards, a still more dreadful weapon, the iron 
chariot, was used against the Israelites by Jabin. This new 
instrument of war seems to have cowed the people completely \ 
for we find that by means of his nine hundred chariots of iron 
Jabin "mightily oppressed the children of Israel" for twenty 
years. It has been well suggested that the possession of the 
war chariot gave rise to the saying of Benhadad's councillors, 
that the gods of Israel were gods of the hiUs, and so their army 
had been defeated ; but that if the battle were fought in the 
plain, where the chariots and Horses could act, they would be 
victorious. 

So dreaded were these weapons, even by those who were 
familiar with them and were accustomed to use them, that when 
the Syrians had besieged Samaria, and had nearly reduced it by 
starvation, the fancied sound of a host of chariots and Horses 
that they heard in the night caused them all to 11 ee and evacuate 
the camp, leaving their booty and all their property in the hands 
of the Israelites. 

Whether the Jews ever employed the terrible scythe chariots 
is not quite certain, though it is probable that they may have 
done so ; and this conjecture is strengthened by the fact that 
they were employed against the Jews by Antiochus, who had 
" footmen an hundred and ten thousand, and horsemen five 



304 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



thousand and three hundred, and elephants two and twenty, and 
three hundred chariots armed with hooks" (2 Mace. xiii. 2). 
Some commentators think that by the iron chariots mentioned 
above were signified ordinary chariots armed with iron scythes 
projecting from the sides. 

By degrees the chariot came to be one of the recognised forces 
in war, and we find it mentioned throughout the books of the 
Scriptures, not only in its literal sense, but as a metaphor which 
every one could understand. In the Psalms, for example, are 




ELIJAH IS CARRIED UP, 



several allusions to the war-chariot. "He maketh wars to cease 
unto the end of the earth ; He breaketh the bow, and cutteth the 
spear in sunder ; He burneth the chariot in the fire " (Ps. xlvi. 9). 
Again : " At Thy rebuke, O God of Jacob, both the chariot and 
horse are cast into a dead sleep " (Ps. Ixxvi. 6). And : " Some 
trust in chariots, and some in horses : but we will remember the 
name of the Lord our God " (Ps. xx. 7). Now, the force of these 
passages cannot be properly appreciated unless we realize to 
ourselves the dread in which the war-chariot was held by the 
foot-soldiers. Even cavalry were much feared ; but the chariots 



1 



THE HORSE. 305 

were objects of almost superstitious fear, and the rushing sound 
of their wheels, the noise of the Horses' hoofs, and the shaking 
of the ground as the "prancing horses and jumping chariots" 
(Nah. iii. 2) thundered along, are repeatedly mentioned. 

See, for example, Ezek. xxvi. 10 : " By reason of the abundance 
of his horses their dust shall cover thee : thy walls shall shake 
at the noise of the horsemen, and of the wheels, and of the 
chariots." Also, Jer. xlvii. 3 : "At the noise of the stamping of 
the hoofs of his strong horses, at the rushing of his chariots, 
and at the rumbling of his wheels, the fathers shall not look 
back to their children for feebleness of hands." See also Joel 
ii. 4, 5 : " The appearance of them is as the appearance of horses ; 
and as horsemen, so shall they run. 

" Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall 
they leap, like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the 
stubble, as a strong people set in battle array." 

In several passages the chariot and Horse are used in bold 
imagery as expressions of Divine power : " The chariots of God 
are twenty thousand, even thousands of angels : the Lord is 
among them, as in Sinai, in the holy place" (Ps. Ixviii. 17). A 
similar image is employed in Ps. civ. 3 : " Who maketh the 
clouds His chariot : who walketh upon the wings of the wind." 
In connexion with these passages, we cannot but call to mind 
that wonderful day when the unseen power of the Almighty 
was made manifest to the servant of Elisha, whose eyes were 
suddenly opened, and he saw that the mountain wa« full of 
Horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha. 

The chariot and horses of fire by which Elijah was taken from 
earth are also familiar to us, and in connexion with the passage 
which describes that wonderful event, we may mention one 
which occurs in the splendid prayer of Habakkuk (iii. 8) : ** Was 
the Lord displeased against the rivers ? was Thine anger against 
the rivers ? was Thy wrath against the sea, that Thou didst ride 
upon Thine horses and Thy chariots of salvation ? " 

By degrees the chariot came to be used for peaceful purposes, 
iind was employed as our carriages of the present day, in carry- 
ing persons of wealth. That this was the case in Egypt from 
very early times is evident from Gen. xli. 43, in which we are 
told that after Pharaoh had taken Joseph out of prison and 
raised him to be next in rank to himself, the king caused him to 



306 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

ride in the second chariot which he had, and so to be pro- 
claimed ruler over Egypt. Many years afterwards we find him 
travelling in his chariot to the land of Goshen, whither he 
went to meet Jacob and to conduct him to the presence of 
Pharaoh. 

At first the chariot seems to have been too valuable to the 
Israelites to have been used for any purpose except war, and it is 
not until a comparatively late time that we find it employed as 
a carriage, and even then it is only used by the noble and 
wealthy. Absalom had such chariots, but it is evident that he 
used them for purposes of state, and as appendages of his regal 
rank. Chariots or carriages were, however, afterwards employed 
by the Israelites as freely as by the Egyptians, from whom they 
were origiaally procured ; and accordingly we find Eehoboam 
mounting his chariot and fleeing to Jerusalem, Ahab riding in 
his chariot from Samaria to Jezreel, with Elijah running before 
him ; and in the New Testament we read of the chariot in 
which sat the chief eunuch of Ethiopia whom Philip baptized 
(Acts viii. 28). 

As to the precise form and character of these chariots, they are 
made familiar to us by the sculptures and paintings of Egypt and 
Assyria, from both of which countries the Jews procured the 
vehicles. Differing very slightly in shape, the principle of the 
chariot was the same ; and it strikes us with some surprise that 
the Assyrians, the Egyptians, and the Jews, the three wealthiest 
and most powerful nations of the world, should not have in- 
vented a better carriage. They lavished the costliest materials and 
the most artistic skill in decorating the chariots, but had no idea 
of making them comfortable for the occupants. 

Tliey were nothing but semicircular boxes on wheels, and of 
very small size. They were hung very low, so that the occu- 
pants could step in and out without trouble, though they do not 
seem to have had the sloping floor of the Greek or Eoman 
chariot. They had no springs, but, in order to render the jolting 
of the carriage less disagreeable, the floor was made of a sort of 
network of leathern ropes, very tightly stretched so as to be 
elastic. The wheels were always two in number, and generally 
had six spokes. 

To the side of the chariot was attached the case which con- 
tained the bow and quiver of arrows, and in the case of a rjch 



THE HORSE. 307 

man tliese bow-cases were covered with gold and silver, and 
adorned with figures of lions and other animals. Should the 
chariot be intended for two persons, two bow-cases were fastened 
to it, the one crossing the other. The spear had also its tubular 
case, in which it was kept upright, like the whip of a modem 
carriage. 

Two Horses were generally used with each chariot, though 
three were sometimes employed. • They were harnessed very 
simply, having no traces, and being attached to the central pole 
by a breast-band, a very slight saddle, and a loose girth. On 
their heads were generally fixed ornaments, such as tufts of 
feathers, and similar decorations, and tassels hung to the harness 
served to drive away the flies. Eound the neck of each Horse 
passed a strap, to the end of which was attached a bell. This 
ornament is mentioned in Zech. xiv. 20 : " In that day shall 
there be upon the bells of the horses, Holiness unto the Lord " 
— i.e. the greeting of peace shall be on the bells of the animals 
once used in war. 

Sometimes the owner drove his own chariot, even when going 
into battle, but the usual plan was to have a driver, who managed 
the Horses while the owner or occupant could fight with both 
his hands at liberty. In case he drove his own Horse, the reins 
passed round his waist, and the whip was fastened to the wrist 
by a thong, so that when the charioteer used the bow, his prin- 
cipal weapon, he could do so without danger of losing his whip. 

Thus much for the use of the chariot in war ; we have now 
the Horse as the animal ridden by the cavalry. 

As was the case with the chariot, the war-horse was not 
employed by the Jews until a comparatively late period of their 
history. They had been familiarized with cavalry during their 
long sojourn in Egypt, and in the course of their war of conquest 
had often suffered defeat from the horsemen of the enemy. But 
we do not find any mention of a mounted force as forming 
part of the Jewish army until the days of David, although 
after that time the successive kings possessed large forces 
of cavalry. 

Many references to mounted soldiers are made by the prophets, 
sometimes allegorically, sometimes metaphorically. See, for 
example, Jer. vi. 23 : " They shall lay hold on bow and spear ; 
they arc cruel, and have no mercy ; their voice roareth like the 



308 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

sea ; and they ride upon horses, set in array as men for war 
against thee, daughter of Zion." The same prophet has a 
similar passage in chap. 1. 42, couched in almost precisely the 
same words. And in chap. xlvi. 4, there is a further reference 
to the cavalry, which is specially valuable as mentioning the 
weapons used by them. The first call of the prophet is to the 
infantry : " Order ye the buckler and shield, and draw near to 
battle " (verse 3) ; and then follows the command to the cavalry, 




THE ISRAELITJCS, LED BY JOSHUA, TAKE JERICHO. 

"Harness the horses; and get up, ye horsemen, and stand forth 
with your helmets ; furbish the spears, and put on the brigan- 
dines." The chief arms of the Jewish soldier were therefore 
the cuirass, the helmet, and the lance, the weapons which in all 
ages, and in all countries, have been found to be peculiarly 
suitable to the horse-soldier. 

Being desirous of affording the reader a pictorial representa- 
tion of the war and state chariots, I have selected Egj^pt as the 
typical country of the former, and Assyria of the latter. Both 



THE HORSE. 



309 



drawings have been executed with the greatest care in details, 
every one of which, even to the harness of the Horses, the mode 
of holding the reins, the form of the whip, and the offensive 
and defensive armour, has been copied from the ancient records 
of Egypt and Nineveh. 

We will first take the war-chariot of Egypt. 





A^'CIENT BATTLE-FIELD. 



This form has been selected as the type of the war-chariot 
because the earliest account of such a force mentions the war- 
chariots of Egypt, and because, after the Israelites had adopted 
chariots as an acknowledged part of their army, the vehicles, as 
well as the trained Horses, and probably their occupants, were 
procured from Egypt. 

The scene represents a battle between the imperial forces and 
a revolted province, so that the reader may liave the oppor- 



310 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS, 

tunity of seeing the various kinds of weapons and armour 
which were in use in Egypt at the time of Joseph. In the 
foreground is the chariot of the general, driven at headlong 
speed, the Horses at full gallop, and the springless chariot leaping 
off the ground as the Horses bound along. The royal rank of the 
general in question is shown by the feather fan which denotes 
his high birth, and which is fixed in a socket at the back of his 
chariot, much as a coachman fixes his whip. The rank of the 
rider is further shown by the feather plumes on the heads of hia 
Horses. 

By the side of the chariot are seen the quiver and bow- 
case, the former being covered with decorations, and havin(^ 
the figure of a recumbent lion along its sides. The simple 
but effective harness of the Horses is especially worthy of 
notice, as showing how the ancients knew, better than the 
moderns, that to cover a Horse with a complicated apparatus 
of straps and metal only deteriorates from the powers of the 
animal, and that a Horse is more likely to behave well if he 
can see freely on all sides, than if aU lateral vision be cut off by 
the use of blinkers. 

Just behind the general is the chariot of another officer, one 
of whose Horses has been struck, and is lying struggling on the 
ground. The general is hastily giving his orders as he dashes 
past the fallen animal. On the ground are lying the bodies of 
some slain enemies, and the Horses are snorting and shaking 
their heads, significative of their 'unwillingness to trample on a 
human being. By the side of the dead man are his shield, bow, 
and quiver, and it is worthy of notice that the form of these 
weapons, as depicted upon the ancient Egyptian monuments, is 
identical with that which is still found among several half-savage 
tribes of Africa. 

In the background is seen the fight raging round the standards. 
One chief has been killed, and while the infantry are pressing 
round the body of the rebel leader and his banner on one side, 
on the other the imperial chariots are thundering along to 
support the attack, and are driving their enemies before them. 
In the distance are seen the clouds of dust whirled into the air 
by the hoofs and wheels, and circling in clouds by the eddies 
caused by the fierce rush of the vehicles, thus illustrating the 
passage in Jer. iv. 13 : " Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and 



TBE HORSE. 



311 



his chariots shall be as a whirlwind : his horses are swifter than 
eagles. Woe unto us ! for we are spoiled." The reader will see, 
by reference to the illustration, how wonderfully true and forcible 
is this statement, the writer evidently having been an eye-witness 
of the scene which he so powerfully depicts. 




CHARIOT OF STATE. 



The second scene is intentionally chosen as affording a strong 
tjontrast to the former. Here, instead of the furious rush, the 
galloping Horses, the chariots leaping off the ground, the 
archers bending their bows, and all imbued with the fierce ardour 
of battle, we have a scene of quiet grandeur, the Assyrian king 
making a solemn progress in his chariot after a victory, accom- 
panied by his attendants, and surrounded by his troops, in all 
the placid splendour of Eastern state. 

Chief object in the illustration stands the great king in his 
chariot, wearing the regal crown, or niitro, and sheltered from 



312 STOMY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the sun by the umbrella, which in ancient Nineveh, as in more 
modern times, was the emblem of royalty. By his side is his 
charioteer, evidently a man of high rank, holding the reins in u 
business-like manner; and in front marches the shield-bearer. 
In one of the sculptures from wliich this illustration was com- 
posed, the shield-bearer was clearly a man of rank, fat, fussy, 
full of importance, and evidently a portrait of some well-known 
individual. 

The Horses are harnessed with remarkable lightness, but they 
bear the gorgeous trappings which befit the rank of the rider, 
their heads being decorated with the curious successive plumes 
with which the Assyrian princes distinguished their chariot 
Horses, and the breast-straps being adorned with tassels, repeated 
in successive rows like the plumes of the head 

The reader will probably notice the peculiar high action of the 
Horses. This accomplishment seems to have been even more 
valued among the ancients than by ourselves, and some of the 
sculptures show the Horses with their knees almost touching 
their noses. Of course the artist exaggerrated the effect that 
he wanted to produce ; but the very fact of the exaggeration 
shows the value that was set on a high and showy action in a 
Horse that was attached to a chariot of state. The old Assyrian 
sculptors knew the Horse well, and delineated it in a most 
spirited and graphic style, though they treated it ratJier conveu- 
tionally. The variety of attitude is really wonderful, considering 
that all the figures are profile views, as indeed seemed to have 
been a law of the historical sculptures. 

Before closing this account of the Horse, it may be as well 
to remark the singular absence of detail in the Scriptural 
accounts. Of the other domesticated animals many such 
details are given, but of the Horse we hear but little, except in 
connexion with war. There are few exceptions to this rule, and 
even the oft-quoted passage in Job, which goes deeper into the 
character of the Horse than any other portion of the Scriptures, 
only considers the Horse as an auxiliary in battle. We miss the 
personal interest in the animal which distinguishes the many 
references to the ox, the sheep, and the goat; and it is 
remarkable that even in the Book of Proverbs, which is so 
rich in references to various animals, very little is said of the 
Horse. 



THE HORSE, 



313 




14 




THE ASS. 

Importance of the Ass in the East — Its general use for the saddle — Riding the As? 
not a mark of humility — The triumphal entry — White Asses — Character of the 
Scriptural Ass — Saddling the Ass — Samson and Balaam. 

In the Scriptures we read of two breeds of Ass, namely, the 
Domesticated and the Wild Ass. As the former is the more 
important of the two, we will give it precedence. 



In the East, the Ass has always played a much more 
important part than among us Westerns, and on that account we 
find it so frequently mentioned in the Bible. In the first place, 
it is the universal saddle-animal of the East. Among us the 
Ass has ceased to be regularly used for the purposes of the 
saddle, and is only casually employed by holiday-makers and the 
like. Some persons certainly ride it habitually, but they almost 
invariably belong to the lower orders, and are content to ride 
without a saddle, balancing themselves in some extraordinary 
manner just over the animal's tail. In the East, however, it is 
ridden by persons of the highest rank, and is decorated with 
saddle and harness as rich as those of the horse. 

315 



316 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

So far from the use of the Ass as a saddle-animal being a 
mark of humility, it ought to be viewed in precisely the opposite 
light. In consequence of the very natural habit of reading, 
according to Western ideas, the Scriptures, which are books 
essentially Oriental in all their allusions and tone of thought, 
many persons have entirely perverted the sense of one very fa- 
miliar passage, the prophecy of Zechariah concerning the future 
Messiah. " Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion ; shout, O daugh- 
ter of Jerusalem: behold, thy King cometh unto thee: He is just, 
and having salvation ; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a 
colt the foal of an ass " (Zech. ix. 9). 

Now this passage, as well as the one which describes its ful- 
filment so many years afterwards, has often been seized upon as 
a proof of the meekness and lowliness of our Saviour, in riding 
upon so humble an animal when He made His entry into Jeru- 
salem. The fact is, that there was no humility in the case, 
neither was the act so understood by the people. He rode upon 
an Ass as any prince or ruler would have done who was engaged 
on a peaceful journey, the horse being reserved for war purposes. 
He rode on the Ass, and not on the horse, because He was the 
Prince of Peace and not of war, as indeed is shown very clearly 
in the context. For, after writing the words which have just 
been quoted, Zechariah proceeds as follows (ver. 10) : " And 1 
will cut off the chariot from Ephraim, and the horse from Jeru- 
salem, and the battle bow shaU be cut off : and He shall speak 
peace unto the heathen : and His dominion shall be from sea 
even to sea, and from the river even to the ends of the earth." 

Meek and lowly was He, as became the new character, 
hitherto imknown to the warlike and restless Jews, a Prince, 
not of war, as had been aU other celebrated kings, but of peace. 
Had He come as the Jews expected — despite so many pro- 
phecies — their Messiah to come, as a great king and conqueror, 
He might have ridden the war-horse, and been surrounded with 
countless legions of armed men. But He came as the herald of 
peace, and not of war; and, though meek and lowly, yet a 
Prince, riding as became a prince, on an Ass colt which had 
borne no inferior burden. 

That the act was not considered as one of lowliness is evident 
from the manner in which it was received by the people, 
accepting Him as the Son of David, coming in the name of the 



THE ASS. 317 

Highest, and greeting Him with the cry of " Hosanna ! " 
(" Save us now,") quoted from verses 25, 26 of Ps. cxviii. : 
" Save now, I beseech Thee, Lord : Lord, I beseech Thee, 
send now prosperity." 
" Blessed be He that cometh in the name of the Lord." 




ENTERING JERUSALEM, 



The palm-branches which they strewed upon the road were 
not chosen by the attendant crowd merely as a means of doing 
honour to Him whom they acknowledged as the Son of David. 
They were necessarily connected with the cry of " Hosanna ! " 
At the Feast of Tabernacles, it was customary for the people to 
assemble with branches of palms and willows in their hands, 
and for one of the priests to recite the Great Hallel, i.e. Ps. cxiii. 
and cxviii. At certain intervals, the people responded with 
the cry of " Hosanna ! " waving at the same time their palm- 
branches. For the whole of the seven days through which the 



318 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

feast lasted^ they repeated their Hosannas, always accompanying 
the shout with the waving of palm-branches, and setting them 
towards the altar as they went in procession round it. 

Every child who could hold a palm-branch was expected to 
take part in the solemnity, just as did the children on the occa- 
sion of the triumphal entry. By degrees, the name of Hosanna 
was transferred to the palm-branches themselves, as well as to 
the feast, the last day being called the Great Hosanna. 

The reader will now see the importance of this carrying of 
palm-branches, accompanied with Hosannas, and that those who 
used them in honour of Him whom they followed into Jerusalem 
had no idea that He was acting any lowly part. 

Again, the woman of Shunem, who rode on an Ass to meet 
Elisha, a mission in which the life of her only child was involved, 
was a woman of great wealth (2 Kings iv. 8), who was able not 
only to receive the prophet, but to build a chamber, and furnish 
it for him. 

Not to multiply examples, we see from these passages that 
the Ass of the East was held in comparatively high estimation, 
being used for the purposes of the saddle, just as would a high- 
bred horse among ourselves. 

Consequently, the Ass is really a different animal. In this 
country he is repressed, and seldom has an opportunity for dis- 
playing the intellectual powers which he possesses, and which 
are of a much higher order than is generally imagined. It is 
rather remarkable, that when w^e wish to speak slightingly of 
intellect we liken the individual to an Ass or a goose, not 
knowing that we have selected just the quadruped and the bird 
which are least worthy of such a distinction. 

Putting aside the bird, as being at present out of place, we 
shall find that the Ass is one of the cleverest of our domesticated 
animals. We are apt to speak of the horse with a sort of re- 
verence, and of the Ass with contemptuous pity, not knowing 
that, of the two animals, the Ass is by far the superior in point 
of intellect. It has been well remarked by a keen observer of 
nature, that if four or five horses are in a field, together with 
one Ass, and there be an assailable point in the fence, the Ass 
is sure to be the animal that discovers it, and leads the way 
through it 



THE Al^iS. 



319 



Take even one of our own toil-worn animals, turned out in a 
common to graze, and see the ingenuity which it displays when 
persecuted by the idle boys who generally frequent such places, 
and who try- to ride every beast that is within their reach. It 
seems to divine at once the object of the boy as he steals up to 
it, and he takes a pleasure in baffling him just as he fancies that 
he has succeeded in his attempt. 




SYRIAN ASSES. 



Should the Ass be kindly treated, there is not an animal that 
proves more docile, or even affectionate. Stripes and kicks it 
resents, and sets itself distinctly against them; and, being nothing 
but a slave, it follows the slavish principle of doing no work that 
it can possibly avoid. 

Now, in the East the Ass takes so much higher rank than 
our own animal, that its whole demeanour and gait are different 



320 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

from those displayed by the generality of its brethren. "Why, 
the very slave of slaves," writes Mr. Lowth, in his "Wanderer 
in Arabia," " the crushed and grief-stricken, is so no more in 
Egypt: the battered drudge has become the willing servant. 
Is that active little fellow, who, with race-horse coat and full 
flanks, moves under his rider with the light step and the action 
of a pony — is he the same animal as that starved and head- 
bowed object of the North, subject for all pity and cruelty, and 
clothed with rags and insult ? 

" Look at him now. On he goes, rapid and free, with his 
small head well up, and as gay as a crimson saddle and a bridle 
of light chains and red leather can make him. It was a glad- 
dening sight to see the unfortunate as a new animal in Egypt." 

Hardy animal as is the Ass, it is not well adapted for tolerance 
of cold, and seems to degenerate in size, strength, speed, and 
spirit in proportion as the climate becomes colder. Whether it 
might equal the horse in its endurance of cold provided that it 
were as carefully treated, is perhaps a doubtful point ; but it is 
a well-known fact that the horse does not necessarily degenerate 
by moving towards a colder climate, though the Ass has always 
been found to do so. 

There is, of course, a variety in the treatment which the Ass 
receives even in the East. Signor Pierotti, whose work on the 
customs and traditions of Palestine has already been mentioned, 
writes in very glowing terms of the animal. He states that he 
formed a very high opinion of the Ass while he was in Egypt, 
not only from its spirited aspect and its speed, but because it 
was employed even by the Viceroy and the great Court officers, 
who may be said to use Asses of more or less intelligence for 
every occasion. He even goes so far as to say that, if aU the 
Asses were taken away from Egypt, travel would be impossible. 

The same traveller gives an admirable summary of the cha- 
racter of the Ass, as it exists in Egypt and Palestine. " What, 
then, are the characteristics of the ass ? Much the same as those 
which adorn it in other parts of the East — namely, it is useful for 
riding and for carrying burdens ; it is sensible of kindness, and 
shows gratitude ; it is very steady, and is larger, stronger, and 
more tractable than its European congener; its pace is easy 
and pleasant ; and it wiU shrink from no labour, if only its poor 
daily feed of straw and barley is fairly givei!, 



THE ASS. 321 

" If well and liberally supplied, it is capable of any enterprise, 
and wears an altered and dignified mien, apparently forgetful of 
its extraction, except when undeservedly beaten by its masters, 
who, however, are not so much to be blamed, because, having 
learned to live among sticks, thongs, and rods, they follow the 
same system of education with their miserable dependants. 

" The wealthy feed him well, deck him with fine harness and 
silver trappings, and cover him, when his work is done, with 
rich Persian carpets. The poor do the best they can for him, 
steal for his benefit, give him a corner at their fireside, and in 
cold weather sleep with him for more warmth. In Palestine, all 
the rich men, whether monarchs or chiefs of villages, possess 
a number of asses, keeping them with their flocks, like the 
patriarchs of old. No one can travel in that country, and observe 
how the ass is employed for aU purposes, without being struck 
with the exactness with which the Arabs retain the Hebrew 
customs." 

The result of this treatment is, that the Eastern Ass is an 
enduring and tolerably swift animal, Yjing with the camel itself 
in its powers of long-continued travel, its usual pace being a 
sort of easy canter. On rough ground, or up an ascent, it is said 
even to gain on the horse, probably because its little sharp hoofs 
give it a firm footing where the larger hoof of the horse is liable 
to slip. 

The familiar term "saddling the Ass" requires some little 
explanation. 

The saddle is not in the least like the article which we know 
by that name, but is very large and complicated in structure. 
Over the animal's back is first spread a cloth, made of thick 
woollen stuff, and folded several times. The saddle itself is a 
very thick pad of straw, covered with carpet, and flat at the top, 
LQstead of being rounded as is the case with our saddles. The 
pommel is very high, and when the rider is seated on it, he is 
perched high above the back of the animal. Over the saddle is 
thrown a cloth or carpet, always of bright colours, and varying 
in costliness of material and ornament accordingr to the wealth 
of the possessor. It is mostly edged with a fringe and tassels. 

The bridle is decorated, like that of the horse, with bells, 
embroidery, tassels, shells, and other ornaments. 

As we may see from 2 Kings iv. 24, the Ass was generally 
14* 



322 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



guided by a driver who ran behind it, just as is done with donkeys 
hired to children here. Owing to the unchanging character of the 
East, there is no doubt that the " riders on asses " of the Scriptures 




A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT. 



rode exactly after the mode which is adopted at the present day. 
What that mode is, we may learn from Mr. Bayard Taylor's amus- 
ing and vivid description of a ride through the streets of Cairp : — 



THE ASS. 323 

" To see Cairo thoroughly, one must first accustom himself to 
the ways of these long-eared cabs, without the use of which I 
would advise no one to trust himself in the bazaars. Donkey- 
riding is universal, and no one thinks of going beyond the Frank 
quarters on foot. If he does, he must submit to be followed by 
not less than six donkeys with their drivers. A friend of mine 
who was attended by such a cavalcade for two hours, was obliged 
to yield at last, and made no second attempt. When we first 
appeared in the gateway of an hotel, equipped for an excursion, 
the rush of men and animals was so great that we were forced 
to retreat until our servant and the porter whipped us a path 
through the yelling and braying mob. After one or two trials 
I found an intelligent Arab boy named Kish, who for five 
piastres a day furnished strong and ambitious donkeys, which 
he kept ready at the door from morning till night. The other 
drivers respected Kish's privilege, and henceforth I had no 
trouble. 

" The donkeys are so small that my feet nearly touched the 
ground, but there is no end to their strength and endurance. 
Their gait, whether in pace or in gallop, is so easy and light 
that fatigue is impossible. The drivers take great pride in 
having high-cushioned red saddles, and in hanging bits of 
jingling brass to the bridles. They keep their donkeys close 
shorn, and frequently beautify them by painting them various 
colours. The first animal I rode had legs barred like a zebra's, 
and my friend's rejoiced in purple flanks and a yellow belly. The 
drivers ran behind them with a short stick, punching them from 
time to time, or giving them a sharp pinch on the rump. Veiy 
tew of them own their donkeys, and I understood their perti- 
nacity when I learned that they frequently received a beating 
on returning home empty-handed. 

" The passage of the bazaars seems at first quite as hazardous 
on donkey-back as on foot; but it is the difference between 
knocking somebody down and being knocked down yourself, 
and one certainly prefers the former alternative. There is no 
use in attempting to guide the donkey, for lie won't be guided. 
The driver shouts behind, and you are dashed at full speed into 
a confusion of other donkeys, camels, horses, carts, water-carriers, 
and footmen. In vain you cry out * Bess ' (enough), * Piacco' 
and other desperate adjurations ; the driver's only reply is : ' Let 



324 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



the bridle hang loose !' You dodge your head under a camel-load 
of planks ; your leg brushes the wheel of a dust-cart ; you strike 
a fat Turk plump in the back ; you miraculously escape up- 




BEGGAR IN THE STREETS OF CAIRO. 



setting a fruit-stand ; you scatter a company of spectral, white- 
masked women ; and at last reach some more quiet street, with 
the sensations of a man who has stormed a battery. 

" At first this sort of riding made me very nervous, but pres- 



THE ASS. 



325 



ently I let the donkey go his own way, and took a curious 
interest in seeing how near a chance I ran of striking or being 
struck. Sometimes there seemed no hope of avoiding a violent 
collision; but, by a series of the most remarkable dodges, he 




NIGHT-WATCH IN CAIRO. 



generally carried you through in safety. The cries of the driver 
running behind gave me no little amusement. 'The hawadji 
comes ! Take care on the right hand ! Take care on the left 
hand ! man, take care ! maiden, take care ! boy, get out of 



326 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the way ! The hawadji comes ! ' Kish had strong lungs, and liis 
donkey would let nothing pass him; and so wherever we went we 
contributed our full share to the universal noise and confusion." 

This description explains several allusions which are made 
LQ the Scriptures to treading down the enemies in the streets, 
and to the chariots raging and jostling against each other in 
the ways. 

The Ass was used in the olden time for carrying burdens, as 
it is at present, and, in all probability, carried them in the same 
way. Sacks and bundles are tied firmly to the pack-saddle ; but 
poles, planks, and objects of similar shape are tied in a sloping 
direction on the side of the saddle, the longer ends trailing on 
the ground, and the shorter projecting at either side of the 
animal's head. The North American Indians carry the poles of 
their huts, or wigwams, in precisely the same way, tpng them 
on either side of their horses, and making them into rude sledges, 
upon ^vhich are fastened the skins that form the walls of their 
huts. The same system of carriage is also found among the 
Esquimaux, and the hunters of the extreme North, who harness 
their dogs in precisely the same manner. The Ass, thus laden, 
becomes a very unpleasant passenger through the narrow and 
cr(1wded streets of an Oriental city; and many an unwary tra- 
veller has found reason to remember the description of Issachar 
as the strong Ass between two burdens. 

The Ass was also used for agriculture, and was employed in 
the plough, as we find from many passages. See for example, 
" Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters, that send forth thither 
the feet of the ox and the ass " (Isa. xxxii. 20). Sowing beside 
the waters is a custom that still prevails in all hot countries, 
the margins of rivers being tilled, while outside this cultivated 
belt there is nothing but desert ground. 

The ox and the Ass were used in the first place for irrigation, 
turning the machines by which water was lifted from the river, 
and poured into the trenches which conveyed it to all parts of 
the tilled land. If, as is nearly certain, the rude machinery of 
the East is at the present day identical with those which were 
used in the old Scriptural times, they were yoked to the machine 
in rather an ingenious manner. The machine consists of an 
upright pivot, and to it is attached the horizontal pole to which 
the ox or Ass is harnessed. A machine exactly similar in prin- 



THE ASS. 327 

ciple may be seen in almost any brick-field in England ; but the 
ingenious part of the Eastern water-machine is the mode in 
which the animal is made to believe that it is being driven by 
its keeper, whereas the man in question might be at a distance, 
or fast asleep. 

The animal is first blindfolded, and then yoked to the end of the 
horizontal bar. Fixed to the pivot, and rather in front of the bar, 
is one end of a slight and elastic strip of wood. The projecting 
end, being drawn forward and tied to the bridle of the animal, 
keeps up a continual pull, and makes the blinded animal believe 
that it is being drawn forward by the hand of a driver. Some 
ingenious but lazy attendants have even invented a sort of self- 
acting whip, i.e. a stick which is lifted and allowed to fall 
on the animal's back by the action of the wheel once every 
round. 

The field being properly supplied with water, the Ass is used 
for ploughing it. It is worthy of mention that at the present 
day the prohibition against yoking an ox and an Ass together is 
often disregarded. The practice, however, is not a judicious one, 
as the slow and heavy ox does not act well with the lighter and 
more active animal, and, moreover, is apt to butt at its com- 
panion with its horns in order to stimulate it to do more than its 
fair proportion of the work. 

There is a custom now in Palestine which probably existed 
in the days of the Scriptures, though I have not been able to find 
any reference to it. Whenever an Ass is disobedient and strays 
from its master, the man who captures the trespasser on his 
grounds clips a piece out of its ear before he returns it to its 
owner. Each time that the animal is caught on forbidden 
grounds it receives a fresh clip of the ear. By looking at 
the ears of an Ass, therefore, any one can tell whether it h.'is 
ever been a straggler ; and if so, he knows the immber of times 
that it has strayed, by merely counting the clip-marks, which 
always begin at the tip of the ear, and extend along the edges. 
Any Ass, no matter how handsome it may be, that has many of 
those clips, is always rejected by experienced travellers, as it is 
sure to be a dull as well as a disobedient beast. 

There are recorded in the Scriptures two remarkable circum- 
stances connected with the Ass, which, however, need but a few 
words. The first is the journey of Balaam from Pethor to Moab, 



328 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

in the course of wliicli there occurred that singular incident of 
the Ass speaking in human language (see Numb. xxii. 21, 35), 
The second is the weU-known episode in the story of Samson, 
where he is recorded as breaking the cords with which his 
enemies had bound him, and killing a thousand Philistines with 
the fresh jaw-bone of an Ass. 



THE WILD ASS. 



Various allusions to the Wild Ass — Its swiftness and wildness — The Wild Ass of 
Asia and Africa — How the Wild Ass is hunted — Excellence of its flesh — Meet- 
ing a Wild Ass — Origin of the domestic Ass — The Wild Asses of Quito. 



There are several passages of Scripture in which the Wild Ass 
is distinguished from the domesticated animal, and in all of 
them there is some reference made to its swiftness, its intract- 
able nature, and love of freedom. It is an astonishingly swift 
animal, so that on the level ground even the best horse has 
scarcely a chance of overtaking it. It is exceedingly wary, its 
sight, hearing, and sense of scent being equally keen, so that to 
approach it by craft is a most dijfficult task. 

Like many other wild animals, it has a custom of ascending 
biUs or rising grounds, and thence surveying the country, and 
even in the plains it will generally contrive to discover some 
earth-mound or heap of sand from which it may act as sentinel 
and give the alarm in case of danger. It is a gregarious animal, 
always assembling in herds, varying from two or three to several 
hundred in number, and has a habit of partial migration in 
search of green food, traversing large tracts of country in its 
passage. 



THE WILD ASS. 329 

It has a curiously intractable disposition, and, even when 
captured very young, can scarcely ever be brought to bear a 
burden or draw a vehicle. 

Attempts have been often made to domesticate the young 
that have been born in captivity, but with very slight suc- 
cess, the wild nature of the animal constantly breaking out, 
even when it appears to have become moderately tractable. 

Although the Wild Ass does not seem to have lived within 
the limits of the Holy Land, it was common enough in the 
surrounding country, and, from the frequent references made 
to it in Scriptures, was well known to the ancient Jews. 

We will now look at the various passages in which the Wild 
Ass is mentioned, and begin with the splendid description in Job 
xxxix. 5-8 : 

" Who hath sent out the wild ass free ? or who hath loosed 
the bands of the wild ass ? 

" Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren 
lands (or salt places) his dwellings. 

" He scometh the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he 
the crying of the driver. 

" The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he search eth 
after every green thing." 

Here we have the animal described with the minuteness and 
truth of detail that can only be found in personal knowledge ; 
its love of freedom, its avoidance of mankind, and its migration 
in search of pasture. 

Another allusion to the pasture-seeking habits of the animal is 
to be found in chapter vi. of the same book, verse 5 : " Doth tlie 
wild ass bray when he hath grass ?" or, according to the version 
of the Jewish Bible, " over tender grass ?" 

A very vivid account of the appearance of the animal in its 
wild state is given by Sir R Kerr Porter, who was allowed by 
a Wild Ass to approa-ch within a moderate distance, the animal 
evidently seeing that he was not one of the people to whom it 
was accustomed, and being curious enough to allow the stranger 
to approach him. 

"The sun was just rising over the summit of the eastern 
mountains, when my greyhound started off in pursuit of an 



330 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

animal which, my Persians said, from the glimpse they had of 
it, was an antelope. T instantly put spurs to my horse, and 
with my attendants gave chase. After an unrelaxed gallop of 
three miles, we came up with the dog, who was then within a 
short stretch of the creature he pursued ; and to my surprise, 
and at first vexation, I saw it to be an ass. 

" Upon reflection, however, judging from its fleetness that it 
must be a wild one, a creature little known in Europe, but which 
the Persians prize above all other animals as an object of chase, 
I determined to approach as near to it as the veiy swift Arab I 
was on could carry me. But the single instant of checking my 
hoi'se to consider had given our game such a head of us that, 
notwithstanding our speed, we could not recover our ground 
on him. 

"I, however, happened to be considerably before my com- 
panions, when, at a certain distance, the animal in its turn made 
a pause, and allowed me to approach within pistol-shot of him. 
He then darted off again with the quickness of thought, capering, 
kicking, and sporting in his flight, as if he were not blown in 
tlie least, and the chase was his pastime. When my followers 
of the country came up, they regretted that I had not shot the 
creature when he was within my aim, telling me that his flesh 
is one of the greatest delicacies in Persia. 

" The prodigious swiftness and the peculiar manner in which 
he fled across the plain coincided exactly with • the description 
that Xenophon gives of the same animal in Arabia. But above 
all, it reminded me of the striking portrait drawn by the author 
of the Book of Job. I was informed by the Mehnander, who 
had been in the desert when making a pilgrimage to the shrine 
of Ali, that the wild ass of Irak Arabi differs in nothing from 
the one I had just seen. He had observed them often for a 
short time in the possession of the Arabs, wTio told him the 
creature was perfectly untameable. 

"A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these 
animals, and, pursuiug it determinately, had the good fortune 
to kiU it." 

It has been suggested by many zoologists that the WUd Ass 
is the progenitor of the domesticated species. The origin of the 
domesticated animal, however, is so very ancient, that we have 




HUNTING WILD Ay^ES. 



332 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

no data whereon even a theory can be built. It is true that the 
Wild and the Domesticated Ass are exactly similar in appear- 
ance, and that an A sinus hemijppus, or Wild Ass, looks so like an 
Asiatic Asinus vulgaris, or Domesticated Ass, that by the eye 
alone the two are hardly distinguisliable from each other. But 
with their appearance the resemblance ends, the domestic animal 
being quiet, docile, and fond of man, while the wild animal is 
savage, intractable, and has an invincible repugnance to human 
beings. 

This diversity of spirit in similar forms is very curious, and 
is strongly exemplified by the semi-wild Asses of Quito. They 
are the descendants of the animals that were imported by the 
Spaniards, and live in herds, just as do the horses. They com- 
bine the habits of the Wild Ass with the disposition of the tame 
animal. They are as swift of foot as the Wild Ass of Syria or 
Africa, and have the same habit of frequenting lofty situations, 
leaping about among rocks and ravines, which seem only fitted 
for the wild goat, and into which no horse can follow them. 

Nominally, they are private property, but practically they 
may be taken by any one who chooses to capture them. The 
lasso is employed for the purpose, and when the animals are 
caught they bite, and kick, and plunge, and behave exactly like 
their wild relations of the Old World, giving their captors infinite 
trouble in avoiding the teeth and hoofs which they wield so 
skilfully. But, as soon as a load has once been bound on the 
back of one of these furious creatures, the wild spirit dies 
oLit of it, the head droops, the gait becomes steady, and the 
animal behaves as if it had led a domesticated life aU its days. 



THE MULE, 333 



THE MULE. 

Ancient use of the Mule — Various breeds of Mule — Supposed date of its introduc- 
tion into Palestine — Mule-breeding forbidden to the Jews — The Mule as a sad- 
dle-animal — Its use on occasions of state — The king's Mule — Obstinacy of the 
Mule. 



There are several references to the Mule in the Holy Scrip- 
tures, but it is remarkable that the animal is not mentioned at 
all until the time of David, and that in the New Testament the 
name does not occur at all. 

The origin of the Mule is unknown, but that the mixed breed 
between the horse and the ass has been employed in many 
countries from very ancient times is a familiar fact. It is a very 
strange circumstance that the offspring of these two animals 
should be, for some purposes, far superior to either of the 
parents, a well-bred Mule having the lightness, surefootedness, 
and hardy endurance of the ass, together with the increased size 
and muscular development of the horse. Thus it is peculiarly 
adapted either for the saddle or for the conveyance of burdens 
over a rough or desert country. 

The Mules that are most generally serviceable are bred from 
the male ass and the mare, those which have the horse as the 
father and the ass as the mother being small, and comparatively 
valueless. At the present day. Mules are largely employed in 
Spain and the Spanish dependencies, and there are some breeds 
which are of very great size and singular beauty, those of 
Andalusia being especially celebrated. In the Andes, the Mule 
has actually superseded the llama as a beast of burden. 

Its appearance in the sacred narrative is quite sudden. In 
Gen. xxxvi. 24, there is a passage which seems as if it referred 
to the Mule : " This was that Anah that found the mules in tho 
wilderness." Now the word which is here rendered as Mules if» 



S34 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



" Yeniim," a word which is not found elsewhere in the Hebrew 
Scriptures. The best Hebraists are agreed that, whatever in- 
terpretation may be put upon the word, it cannot possibly have 
the signification that is here assigned to it. Some translate 
the word as " hot springs," while the editors of the Jewish Bible 




ariTLBS OF THE EAST. 



prefer to leave it untranslated, thus signifying that they are not 
satisfied with any rendering. 

The word which is properly translated as Mule is " Pered ; '' 
and the first place where it occurs is 2 Sam. xiii. 29. Absalom 
had taken advantage of a sheep-shearing feast to kill his brother 
Amnon in revenge for the insult off ired to Tamar : " And the 
servants of Absalom did unto Amnon as Absalom had com- 



Tm! MULR 



S35 



manded. Then all the king's sons arose, and every man gat him 
up upon his mule, and fled." It is evident from this passage 
that the Mule must have been in use for a considerable time, 
as the sacred writer mentions, as a matter of course, that the 
king's sons had each his own riding mule. 




ABSALOM IS CAUGUT IN THE BOUGHS OF AN OAK TRKE. 

Farther on, chap, xviii. 9 records the event which led to 
the death of Absalom by the hand of Joab. " And Absalom 
met the servants of David. And Absalom rode upon a mule, 
and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak, and 
his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken up between 
the heaven and the earth ; and the mule that was under him 
went away." 

We see by these passages that the Mule was held in such 
high estimation that it was used by the royal princes for the 
saddle, and had indeed superseded the ass. In another passage 
we shall find that the Mule was ridden by the king himself 



336 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

when lie travelled in state, and that to ride upon the king's 
Mule was considered as equivalent to sitting upon the king's 
throne. See, for example, 1 Kings i in which there are several 
passages illustrative of this curious fact. See first, ver. 33, in 
which David gives to Zadok the priest, Nathan the prophet, 
and Benaiah the captain of the hosts, instructions for bringing 
his son Solomon to Gihon, and anointing him king in the stead 
of his father : " Take with you the servants of your lord, and 
cause Solomon my son to ride upon mine own mule, and bring 
him down to Gihon." 

That the Mule was as obstinate and contentious an animal 
in Palestine as it is in Europe is evident from the fact that 
the Eastern mules of the present day are quite as trouble- 
some as their European brethren. They are very apt to shy at 
anything, or nothing at all ; they bite fiercely, and every now and 
then they indulge in a violent kicking fit, flinging out their 
heels with wonderful force and rapidity, and turning round and 
round on their fore-feet so quickly that it is hardly possible to 
approach them. There is scarcely a traveller in the Holy Land 
who has not some story to tell about the Mule and its perverse 
disposition ; but, as these anecdotes have but very slight bearing 
on the subject of the Mule as mentioned in the Scriptures, they 
will not be given in these pages. 




DANIEL REFUSES TO EAT TUE KING'S MEAT. 



SWINE. 

The Mosaic prohibition of the pig — Hatred of Swine by Jews and Mahometans — 
The prodigal son — Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the skin 
— Destruction of the herd of Swine — The wild boar of the woods — The damage 
which it does to the vines. 



Many are the animals which are specially mentioned in the 
Mosaic law as unfit for food, beside those that come under the 
general head of being unclean because they do not divide the 
hoof and chew the cud. There is none, however, that excited 
such abhorrence as the hog, or that was more utterly detested. 

It is utterly impossible for a European, especially one of the 
present day, to form even an idea of the utter horror and loath- 
ing with which the hog was regarded by the ancient Jews. 

I'; 337 



338 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Even at the present day, a zealous Jew or Mahometan looks 
upon the hog, or anything that belongs to the hog, with an 
abhorrence too deep for words. The older and stricter Jews felt 
so deeply on this subject, that they would never even mention 
the name of the hog, but always substituted for the objectionable 
word the term " the abomination." 

Several references are made in the Scriptures to the exceeding 
disgust felt by the Jews towards the Swine. The portion of 
the iMosaic law on which a Jew would ground his antipathy to 
the flesh of Swine is that passage which occurs in Lev. xi. 7 : 
"And the swine, though he di\dde the hoof, and be cloven- 
footed, yet he cheweth not the cud ; he is unclean to you." But 
the very same paragraph, of which this passage forms the ter- 
mination, treats of other unclean beasts, such as the coney (or 
hyrax) and the hare, neither of which animals are held in such 
abhorrence as the Swine 

This enactment could not therefore have produced the sin- 
gular feeling with which the S^^dne were regarded by the Jews, 
and in all probability the antipathy was of far greater antiquity 
than the time of Moses. 

How hateful to the Jewish mind was the hog we may infer 
from many passages, several of which occur in the Book ol 
Isaiah. See, for example, Ixv. 3, 4 : "A people that pro- 
voketh me to anger continually to my face ; that sacrificeth in 
gardens, and burneth incense upon altars of brick ; 

"Which remain among the graves, and lodge in the monu- 
ments, which eat swine's flesh, and broth of abominable tilings 
is in their vessels." Here we have the people heaping one 
abomination upon another — the sacrifice to idols in the gardens, 
the burning of incense upon a forbidden altar and with strange 
fire, the living among the tombs, where none but madmen and 
evil spirits were supposed to reside, and, as the culminating 
point of iniquity, eating S\\ine's flesh, and drinking the broth 
in which it was boiled. 

In the next chapter, verse 3, we have another reference to the 
Swine. Speaking of the wickedness of the people, and the 
uselessness of their sacrifices, the prophet proceeds to say : " He 
that kiUeth an ox is as if he slew a man ; he that sacrificeth a 
lamb, as if he had cut off a dog's neck ; he that offereth an 
oblation, as if he offered swine's blood." We see here how the 



SWINE. 339 

prophet proceeds from one image to another : the murder of a 
man, the offering of a dog instead of a lamb, and the pouring 
out of Swine's blood upon the altar instead of wine — the last- 
mentioned crime being evidently held as the worst of the three. 
Another reference to the Swine occurs in the same chapter, 
verse 17: "They that sanctify themselves, and purify them- 
selves in the gardens behind one tree in the midst, eating swine's 
flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse, shall be consumed 
together, saith the Lord." 

Not only did the Jew^s refuse to eat the flesh of the hog, but 
they held in utter abomination everything that belonged to it, 
and would have thought themselves polluted had they been even 
touched with a hog's bristle. Even at the present day this feel- 
ing hfts not diminished, and both by Jevrs and Mahometans the 
hog is held in utter abhorrence. 

Some recent travellers have made great use of this feeling. 
Signer Pierotti, for example, during his long sojourn in Palestine, 
found the flesh of the hog extremely beneficial to him. " How 
often has the flesh of this animal supported me, especially during 
the earlier part of my stay in Palestine, before I had learned to 
like the mutton and the goats' flesh ! I give the preference to 
this meat because it has often saved me time by rendering a fire 
unnecessary, and freed me from importunate, dirty, and unsavoury 
guests, who used their hands for spoons, knives, and forks. 

"A little piece of bacon laid conspicuously upon the cloth 
that served me for a table was always my best friend. Without 
this talisman I should never have freed myself from unwelcome 
company, at least without breaking all the laws of hospitality 
by not inviting the chiefs of my escort or the guides to share my 
meal; a thing neither prudent nor safe in the open country. 
Therefore, on the contrary, when thus provided I pressed them 
with the utmost earnestness to eat with me, but of course never 
succeeded in persuading them ; and so dined in peace, keeping 
on good terms with them, although they did call me behind my 
back a ' dog of a Frank ' for eating pork. 

" Besides, 1 had then no fear of my stores failing, as I always 
took care to carry a stock large enough to supply the real wants 
of my party. So a piece of bacon was more service to me than 
a revolver, a rifle, or a sword ; and I recommend all travellers in 
Palestine to carry bacon rather tlian arms. 



340 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



Such being the feelings of the Jews, we may conceive the 
abject degradation to which the Prodigal Son of the parable 




THE PRODIGAL SON. 



must have descended, when he was compelled to become a 
swine-herd for a living, and would have been glad even to have 
eaten the very husks on which the Swine fed. These husks, by 
the way, were evidently the pods of the locust-tree, or carob, of 
which we shall have more to say in a future page. We have in 
our language no words to express the depths of ignominy into 
which this young man must have fallen, nor can we conceive 
any office which in our estimation would be so degrading as 
would be that of swine-herd to a Jew. 

How deeply rooted was the abhorrence of the Swine's flesh 
we can see from a passage in 2 Maccabees, in which is related a 
series of insults offered to the religion of the Jews. The temple 
in Jerusalem was to be called the Temple of Jupiter Olympus, 
and that on Gerizim was to be dedicated to Jupiter, the defender 
of strangers. The altars were defiled by forbidden things, and the 
celebration of the Sabbath, or of any Jewish ceremony, was 
punishable with death. 

Severe as were all these afflictions, there was one which the 
Jews seem, from the stress laid upon it, to have felt more keenly 
than any other. This was the compulsory eating of Swine's 
flesh, an act which was so abhorrent to the Jews that in 
attempting to enforce it, Antiochus found that he was foiled by 
the passive resistance offered to him. The Jews had allowed 
their temples to be dedicated to the worship of heathen deities, 
they had submitted to the deprivation of their sacred rites, they 
had even consented to walk in procession on the Feast of 
Bacchus, carrying ivy like the rest of the worshippers in that 
most licentious festival. It might be thought that any people 
who submit to such degradation would suffer any similar in- 



SWINE. 



341 



dignity. But even their forbearance had reached its limits, and 
nothing could induce them to eat the flesh of Swine. 

Several examples of the resistance offered by them are re- 
corded in the book just mentioned. Eleazer, for example, a man 
ninety years old, sternly refused to partake of the abominable 




ELEAZAR REFUSES TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH. 



food. Some of the officials, in compassion for his great age, 
advised him to take lawful meat with him and to exchange it for 
the Swine's flesh. This he refused to do, saying that his age 
was only a reason for particular care on his part, lest the young 
should be led away by his example. His persecutors then 



342 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



forced the meat into his mouth, but he rejected it, and died 
under the lash. 

Another example of similar, but far greater heroism, is given 
by the same chronicler. A mother and her seven sons were 
urged with blows to eat the forbidden food, and refused to do 
so. Thinking that the mother would not be able to endure the 




A MOTHER AND HER SEVEN SONS TORTURED FOR REFUSING TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH. 

sight of her sons' suiFermgs, the officers took them in succession, 
and inflicted a series of horrible tortures upon them, beginning 
by cutting off their tongues, hands, and feet, and ending by 
roasting them while still alive. Their mother, far from counsel- 
ling her sons to yield, even though they were bribed by promises 
of wealth and rank, only encouraged them to persevere, and, 
when the last of her sons was dead, passed herself through the 
same fiery trial. 

It has been conjectured, and with plausibility, that the pig 
was prohibited by Moses on account of the unwholesomeness of 
its flesh in a hot country, and that its almost universal repudia- 
tion in such lands is a proof of its unfitness for food. In coun- 
tries where diseases of the skin are so common, and where the 
dreaded leprosy still maintains its hold, the flesh of the pig is 



SWINE. 



343 



thought, whether rightly or wrongly, to increase the tendency to 
such diseases, and on that account alone would be avoided. 

It has, however, been shown that the flesh of Swine can be 
habitually consumed in hot countries without producing any 




THE EVIL SPIRITS ENTER A HERD OF SWINE. 



evil results; and, moreover, that the prohibition of Moses was 
not confined to the Swine, but included many other animals 
whose flesh is used without scruple by those very persons who 
reject that of the pig. 

Knowing the deep hatred of the Jews towards this animal, 
we may naturally wonder how we come to hear of herds of 
Swine kept in Jewish lands. 

Of this custom there is a familiar example in the herd of 
Swine that was drowned in the sea (Matt. viii. 28—34). It is 
an open question whether those who possessed the Swine were 
Jews of lax principles, who disregarded the Law for the sake 



344 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



of gain, or whether they were Gentiles, who, of course, were not 
bound by the Law. The former seems the likelier interpretation, 
the destruction of the Swine being a fitting punishment for their 
owners. It must be here remarked, that our Lord did not, as is 
often said, destroy the Swine, neither did He send the devils into 
them, so that the death of these animals cannot be reckoned as 
one of the divine miracles. Ejecting the evil spirits from the 
maniacs was an exercise of His divine authorit}^ ; the destruction 
of the Swine was a manifestation of diaboKcal anger, permitted, 
but not dictated. 

Swine are at the present day much neglected in Palestine, 
because the Mahometans and Jews may not eat the flesh, and the 
Christians, as a rule, abstain from it, so that they may not hurt 
the feelings of their neighbours. Pigs are, however, reared in the 
various monasteries, and bv the Arabs attached to them. 










WILD BOARS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A DEER. 



We now come to the wild animal. There is only one passage 
in the Scriptures in which the Wild Boar is definitely men- 
tioned, and another in which a reference is made to it in a 
paraphrase. 




WILD BOARS. 



15^ 



346 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The former of these is the well-known verse of the Psalms : 
" Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which 
pass by the way do pluck her ? 

" The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast 
of the field doth devour it " (Ps. Ixxx. 12, 13). The second 
passage is to be found in Ps. Ixviii. 30. In the Authorized 
Version it is thus rendered : " Eebuke the company of spearmen, 
the multitude of bulls, with the calves of the people." If the 
reader will refer to the marginal translation (which, it must be 
remarked, is of equal authority with the text), the passage runs 
thus : " Eebuke the beasts of the reeds," &c. Now, this is 
undoubtedly the correct rendering, and is accepted in the Jewish 
Bible. 

Having quoted these two passages, we will proceed to the 
description and character of the animal. 

In the former times, the Wild Boar was necessarily much 
more plentiful than is the case in these days, owing to the 
greater abundance of woods, many of which have disappeared 
by degrees, and others been greatly thinned by the encroach- 
ments of mankiud. Woods and reed-beds are always the habi- 
tations of the Wild Boar, which resides in these fastnesses, and 
seems always to prefer the reed-bed to the wood, probably 
because it can find plenty of mud, m which it wallows after the 
fashion of its kind. There is no doubt whatever that the " beast 
of the reeds " is simply a poetical phrase for the Wild Boar. 

If there should be any cultivated ground in the neighbour- 
hood, the Boar is sure to sally out and do enormous damage to 
the crops. It is perhaps more dreaded in the vineyards than in 
any other gi'ound, as it not only devours the grapes, but tears 
down and destroys the vines, trampliag them under foot, and 
destroying a hundredfold as much as it eats. 

If the reader will refer again to Ps. Ixxx. he will see that the 
Jewish nation is described under the image of a vine : "Thou 
hast brought a vine out of Egypt : Thou hast cast out the 
heathen and planted it," &c. No image of a destructive enemy 
could therefore be more appropriate than that which is used. 
We have read of the little foxes that spoil the vines, but the 
Wild Boar is a much more destructive enemy, breaking its way 
through the fences, rooting up the ground, tearing down the vines 
themselves, and treading them under its feet. A single party 




WrLD BOARS DESTROYING A VINEYARD. 



348 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

of these animals will sometimes destroy an entire vineyard in 
a single night. 

"We can well imagine the damage that would be done to a 
vineyard even by the domesticated Swine, but the Wild Boar 
is infinitely more destructive. It is of very great size, often 
resembling a donkey rather than a boar, and is swift and active 
beyond conception. The Wild Boar is scarcely recognisable as 
the very near relation of the domestic species. It runs with 
such speed, that a high-bred horse finds some difficulty in over- 
taking it, while an indifferent steed would be left hopelessly 
behind. Even on level ground the hunter has hard work to 
overtake it ; and if it can get upon broken or hilly ground, no 
horse can catch it. The Wild Boar can leap to a considerable 
distance, and can wheel and turn when at fuU speed, with an 
agility that makes it a singularly dangerous foe. Indeed, the 
inhabitants of countries where the Wild Boar flourishes would 
as soon face a lion as one of these animals, the stroke of whose 
razor-like tusks is made with lightning swiftness, and which is 
sufficient to rip up a horse, and cut a dog nearly asunder. 

Although the Wild Boar is not as plentiful in Palestine as 
used to be the case, it is still found in considerable numbers. 
"WTienever the inhabitants can contrive to cut off the retreat of 
marauding parties among the crops, they turn out for a general 
hunt, and kill as many as they can manage to slay. After one 
of these hunts, the bodies are mostly exposed for sale, but, as the 
demand for them is very small, they can be purchased at a very 
cheap rate. Signor Pierotti bought one in the plains of Jericho 
for five shillings. Por the few who may eat the hog, this is a 
fortunate circumstance, the flesh being very excellent, and as 
superior to ordinary pork as is a pheasant to a barn-door fowl 
or venison to mutton. 





INDIAN ELEPHANT. 



THE ELEPHANT. 



The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized Version — The Elephant as 
an engine of war — Antiochus and his Elephants — Oriental exaggeration — Self- 
devotion of Eleazar — Attacking the Elephants, and their gradual abandonment 
in war. 

Except indirectly, the Elephant is never mentioned in the 
Authorized Version of tne Canonical Scriptures, although fre- 
quent references are made to ivory, the product of that animal. 

The earliest mention of ivory in the Scriptures is to be found 
in 1 Kings x. 18 : " Moreover the king {i.e. Solomon) m-ade a 
great throne of ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold." This 
passage forms a portion of the description given by the sacred 
historian of the glories of Solomon's palace, of which this cele- 
brated throne, with the six steps and the twelve lions on the 
steps, was the centiliil and most magnificent object. It is named 
together with the three hundred golden shields, the golden vessel 
of the royal palace, and the wonderful arched viaduct crossing 
the valley of the Tyropoeon, " the ascent by which he went up 

349 



350 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



unto the house of the Lord," all of which glories so overcame 
the Queen of Sheba that " there was no more spirit in her." 




KIKG SOLOMON, SEATED UPON HIS THRONE, RECEIVES THE QUEEN OF SHEBA. 

We see, therefore, that in the time of Solomon ivory was so 
precious an article that it was named among the chief of the 
wonders to be seen in the palace of Solomon, the wealthiest and 
most magnificent monarch of sacred or profane history. 

That it should not have been previously mentioned is very 
singular. Five hundred years had elapsed since the Israelites 
escaped from the power of Egypt, and during the whole of that 
time, though gold and silver and precious stones and costly 
raiment are repeatedly mentioned, we do not find a single pas- 
sage in which any allusion is made to ivory. Had we not 
known that ivory was largely used among the Egyptians, such 
an omission would cause no surprise. But the researches oi 
modern travellers have brought to light many articles of ivory 
that were in actual use in Egypt, and we therefore cannot but 
wonder that a material so valued and so beautiful does not seem 
to have been reckoned among the treasures which were brought 
by the Israelites from the land of their captivity, and which 




INDIAN ELEPHANTS. 



352 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

were so abundant tliat the Tabernacle was entirely formed of 

them. 

In the various collections of Europe are many specimens of 
ivory used by the ancient Egyptians, among the chief of which 
may be mentioned an ivory box in the Louvre, having on its lid 
the name of the dynasty in which it was carved, and the ivory- 
tipped lynch-pins of the splendid war-chariot in Florence, from 
which the illustration on page 309 has been drawn. 

■ The ivory used by the Egyptians was, of course, that of the 
African Elephant ; and was obtained chiefly from Ethiopia, as 
we find in Herodotus ("Thalia," 114) : — " Where the meridian de- 
clines towards the setting sun, the Ethiopian territory reaches, 
being the extreme part of the habitable world. It produces 
much gold, huge elephants, wild trees of all kinds, ebony, and 
men of large stature, very handsome and long-Hved." 

The passages in the Bible in which the Elephant itself is 
named are only to be found in the Apocrypha, and in all of them 
the Elephant is described as an engine of war. If the reader 
will refer to the First Book of the Maccabees, he wiU find that 
the Elephant is mentioned at the very commencement of the 
book. " JJs'ow when the kingdom was established before An- 
tiochus, he thought to reign over Egypt, that he might have the 
dominion of two realms. 

" Wherefore' he entered into Egypt Avith a gi-eat multitude, 
with chariots, and elephants, and horsemen, and a great navy." 
(l 16, 17.) 

Here we see that the Elephant was considered as a most potent 
engine of war, and, as we may perceive by the context, the King 
of Egypt was so alarmed by the invading force, that he ran away, 
and allowed Antiochus to take possession of the country. 

After this, Antiochus Eupator marched against Jerusalem 
with a vast army, which is thus described in detail : — " The 
number of his army was one hundred thousand footmen, and 
twenty thousand horsemen, and two and thirty elephants exer- 
cised in battle. 

" And to the end that they might provoke the elephants to 
fight, they showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries. 

''Moreover, they divided the beasts among the armies, and 
for every elephant they appointed a thousand men, armed with 
coats of mail, and with helmets of brass on their heads ; and, 



THE ELEPHANT. 353 

besides this^ for every beast were ordained five hundred horse- 
men of the best. 

" These were ready at every occasion wheresoever the beast 
was ; and whithersoever the boast went they went also, neither 
departed they from him, 

"And upon the beasts were there strong towers of wood, 
which covered every one of them, and were girt fast unto them 
with devices ; there were also upon eveiy one two and thirty 
strong men that fou;:;ht upon them, beside the Indian that ruled 
him. 

" As for the remnant of the horsemen, they set them on this 
side and that side at the two fronts of the host, giving them 
signs what to do, and being harnessed all over amidst the 
ranks." (1 Mace. vi. 30, &c.) 

It is evident from this description that, in the opinion of the 
writer, the Elephants formed the principal arms of the opposing 
force, these animals being prominently mentioned, and the rest 
of the army being reckoned as merely subsidiaries of the 
terrible beasts. The thirty-two Elephants appear to have taken 
such a hold of the narrator's mind, that he evidently looked upon 
them in the same light that the ancient Jews regarded chariots 
of war, or as at the present day savages regard artillery. 
According to his ideas, the thirty-two Elephants constituted the 
real army, the hundred thousand infantry and twenty thousand 
cavalry being only in attendance upon these animals. 

Taken as a whole, the description of the war Elephant is a 
good one, though slightly exaggerated, and is evidently written 
by an eye-witness. The mention of the native mahout, or 
" Indian that guided him," is characteristic enough, as is the 
account of the howdah, or wooden carriage on the back of the 
animal. 

The number of warriors, however, is evidently exaggerated, 
though not to such an extent as the account of Julius Caesar's 
Elephants, which are said to have carried on their backs sixty 
soldiers, beside the wooden tower in which they fought. It is 
evident that, in the first place, no Elephant could carry a tower 
large enough to hold so many fighting men, much less one 
which would afford space for them to use their weapons. 

A good account of the fighting Elephant is given by Topsel 
(p. 157) : — " There were certain officers and guides of the Ele- 



354 STOBT OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

phants, who were called Elephantarchm, wlio were the governors 
of sixteen Elephants, and they which did institute and teach 
them martial discipline were called Elephantagogi. 

" The Military Elephant did carry four persons on his bare 
back, one fighting on the right hand, another fighting on the 
left hand, a third, which stood fighting backwards from the 
Elephant's head, and a fourth in the middle of these, holding 
the rains, and guiding the Beast to the discretion of the Soul- 
diers, even as the Pilot in a ship guideth the stem, wherein 
was required an equall knowledge and dexterity ; for when the 
Indian which ruled them said. Strike here on the right hand, 
or else on the left, or refrain and stand still, no reasonable man 
could yield readier obedience." 

This description is really a very accurate as well as spirited 
one, and conveys a good idea of the fighting Elephant as it 
appeared when brought into action. 

Strangely enough, after giving this temperate and really 
excellent account of the war Elephant, the writer seems to have 
been unable to resist the fascination of his theme, and proceeds 
to describe, with great truth and spirit, the mode of fighting 
adopted by the animal, intermixed with a considerable amount 
of the exaggeration from which the former part of his account 
is free. 

" They did fasten iron chains, first of all, upon the Elephant 
that was to bear ten, fifteen, twenty, or thirty men, on either 
side two panniers of iron bound underneath their belly, and 
upon them the like panniers of wood, hollow, wherein they 
placed their men at armes, and covered them over with small 
boards (for the trunck of the Elephant was covered with a mail 
for defence, and upon that a broadsword two cubits long) ; this 
(as also the wooden Castle, or pannier aforesaid) were fastened 
first to the neck and then to the rump of the Elephant. 

"Being thus armed, they entered the battel, and they shewed 
unto the Beasts, to make them more fierce, wine, Kquor made of 
Rice, and white cloth, for at the sight of any of these his couraga 
and rage iiicrea,seth above all measure. Then at the sound of 
the Trumpet, he beginneth with teeth to strike, tear, beat, spoil, 
take up into the air, cast down again, stamp upon men under 
feet, overthrow with his trunck, and make way for his riders to 
pierce with Spear, Shield, and Sword ; 30 that his horrible voice. 




THE WAR ELEPHANT. 



356 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS, 

his wonderful body, his terrible force, his admirable skill, his 
ready and inestimable obedience, and his strange and seldom- 
seen shape, produced in a main battel no mean accidents and 
overturns." 

In this account there is a curious mixture of truth and 
exaggeration. As we have already seen, the number of soldiers 
which the animal was supposed to carry is greatly exaggerated, 
and it is rather amusing to note how the " towers " in which they 
fought are modified into "panniers." Then the method by which 
the animal is incited to the combat is partly true, and partly 
false. Of course an Elephant is not angered by seeing a piece 
of white cloth, or by looking at wine, or a liquor made of rice. 

But that the wine, or the " liquor made of rice," i. e. arrack, 
was administered to the Elephant before it was brought into the 
battle-field, is likely enough. Elephants are wonderfully fond of 
strong drink. They can be incited to perform any task wdthin 
their powers by a provision of arrack, and when stimulated by 
a plentiful supply of their favourite drink they would be in 
good fighting condition. 

Next we find the writer describing the Elephant as being 
furnished with a coating of mail armour on its proboscis, the 
end of which was armed with a sword a yard in length. Now 
any one who is acquainted with the Elephant will see at once 
that such offensive and defensive armour would deprive the 
animal of the full use of the proboscis, and would, therefore, 
only weaken, and not strengthen, its use in battle. Accord- 
ingly we find that the writer, when describing with perfect 
accuracy the mode in which the Elephant fights, utterly omits 
all mention of the sword and the mailed proboscis, and describes 
the animal, not as striking or thrusting with the sword, but as 
overthrowing with the trunk, taking up into the air, and casting 
down again — acts which could only be performed when the 
proboscis was unencumbered by armour. The use of weapons 
was left to the soldiers that fought upon its back, the principal 
object of the huge animal being to trample its way through 
the opposing ranks, and to make a way for the soldiers that 
followed. 

It may be easily imagined that, before soldiers become fami- 
liarized with the appearance of the Elephant, they might be 
pardoned for being panic-struck at the sight of so strange an 



THE ELEPHANT. 367 

animal. Not only was it formidable for its vast size, and for the 
armed men which it carried, but for the obedience which it 
rendered to its keeper, and the skill with which it wielded the 
strange but powerful weapon with which Nature had armed it. 

At first, the very approach of so terrible a foe struck con- 
sternation into the soldiers, who knew of no mode by which 
they could oppose the gigantic beast, which came on in its 
swift, swinging pace, crushing its way by sheer weight through 
the ranks, and striking right and left with its proboscis. No 
other method of checking the Elephant, except by self-sacrifice, 
could be found; and in 1 Mace. vi. 43 — 46, we read how 
Eleazar, the son of Mattathias, nobly devoted himself for his 
country. 

" Eleazar also, surnamed Savaran, perceiving that one of the 
beasts, armed with royal harness, was higher than all the rest, 
^nd supposing that the king was upon him, 

" Put himself in jeopardy, to the end he might deliver his 
people, and get him a perpetual name. 

"Whereupon he ran upon him courageously, through the 
midst of the battle, slaying on the right hand and on the left, 
so that they were divided from him on both sides. 

" Which done, he crept under the elephant, and thrust him 
under, and slew him ; whereupon the elephant fell down upon 
him, and he died." 

I may here mention that the surname of Savaran, or Avaran, 
as it ought to be caUed, signifies one who pierces an animal from 
behind, and was given to him after his death, in honour of his 
exploit. 

At first, then, Elephants were the most formidable engines 
of war that could be brought into the battle-field, and the very 
sight of these huge beasts, towering above even the helmets 
of the cavalry, disheartened the enemy so much that victory 
became easy. 

After a while, however, when time for reflection had been 
allowed, the more intellectual among the soldiers began to think 
that, after all, the Elephant was not a mere engine, but a living 
animal, and, as such, subject to the infirmities of the lower 
animals. So they invented scheme after scheme, by which they 
baffled the attacks of these once dreaded foes, and sometimes 
even succeeded in driving them back among the ranks of their 



358 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

own soldiery, so maddened with pain and anger, that they dealt 

destruction among the soldiers for whom they were fighting, 
and so broke up their order of battle that the foe easily over- 
came them. 

The vulnerable nature of the proboscis was soon discovered, and 
soldiers were armed with very sharp swords, set on long handles, 
with which tliey continally attacked the Elephants' trunks. 
Others were mounted on swift horses, dashed past the Elephant, 
and hurled their darts before the animal could strike them. 
Others, again, were placed in chariots, and armed with very long 
and sharply-pointed spears. Several of these chariots would 
be driven simultaneously against an Elephant, and sometimes 
succeeded in killing the animal. Slingers also were told off 
for the express purpose of clearing the " castles," or howdahs, 
of the soldiers who fought on the Elephants' backs, and their 
especial object was the native mahout, who sat on the animal's 
neck. 

Sometimes they made way for the Elephant as it pressed 
forward, and then closed round it, so as to make it the central 
mark, on which converged a hail of javelins, arrows, and stones 
on every side, until the huge animal sank beneath its many 
wounds. By degrees, therefore, the Elephant was found to be 
so uncertain an engine of war, that its use was gradually dis- 
continued, and finally abandoned altogether. 

The Elephant which was employed in these wars was the 
Indian species, Ele^ohas Indicus, which is thought to be more 
susceptible of education than the African Elephant. The latter, 
however, has been tamed, and, in the days of Eome's greatest 
splendour, was taught to perform a series of tricks that seem 
almost incredible. As, however, the Indian species is that with 
which we have here to do, I have selected it for the principal 
illustrations. 

It may be at once distinguished from its African relative by 
the comparatively small ears, those of the African Elephant 
reaching above the back of the head, and drooping well below 
the neck. The shape of the head, too, is different. In the 
Indian species, only the males bear tusks, and even many of 
them are unarmed. In the African species, however, both sexes 
bear tusks, those of the male furnishing the best ivory, with its 



THE ELEPHANT. 



359 



peculiar cream} colour and beautiful graining, and those of the 
female being smaller in size, and producing ivory of a much 
inferior quality. 




The Elephant, whether of Asia or Africa, 
always lives in herds varying greatly in num- 
bers, and invariably found in the deepest forests, 
or in their near vicinity. Both species are fond 
of water, and never wander far from some stream or fountain, 
although they can, and do, make tolerably long journeys for the 
purpose of obtaining the needful supply of liquid. 

They have a curious capability of laying up a store of water in 
their interior, somewhat after the fashion of the camel, but also 
possess the strange accomplishment of drawing the liquid supply 
from their stomachs by means of their trunks, and scattering it in 
a shower over their backs to cool their heated bodies. 

When drinking, the Elephant inserts the tip of his trunk into 



360 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the stream, fills it with water, and then, turning it into his throat, 
discharges the contents. 

The strangest portion of the Elephant is the trunk, or proboscis. 
This wonderful appendage is furnished at its extremity with a fin- 
ger-like projection, with which the animal can pluck a single blade 
of grass or pick up a small object from the ground. 

The value of the proboscis to the Elephant can be estimated 
when it is considered that without its aid the animal must soon 
starve to death. The short, thick neck and projecting tusks would 
entirely prevent it from reaching any of the vegetation upon which 
it feeds. 

With the trunk, however, the Elephant readily carries its food 
to its mouth, and employs the useful member just as if it were a 
long and flexible arm. 

The Elephant bears a worldwide fame for its capabilities as a 
servant and companion of man, and for the extraordinary devel- 
opment of its intellectual faculties. The Indian or Asiatic Ele- 
phant is the variety that is considered most docile and easy to 
train ; these are almost invariably taken in a wild state from their 
native forests. The Indian hunters usually proceed into the woods 
with trained female Elephants. These advance quietly, and by 
their blandishments so occupy the attention of any unfortunate 
male that they meet that the hunters are enabled to tie his legs 
together and fasten him to a tree. His treacherous companions 
now leave him to struggle in impotent rage until he is so subdued 
by hunger and fatigue that the hunters can drive him home be- 
tween two tame elephants. When once captured, he is easily 
trained. 

The following curious instance of intelligence in an Elephant 
is given by a traveller in Ceylon: 

" One evening, while riding in the vicinity of Kandy, my horse 
showed some excitement at a noise which was heard in the thick 
jungle, sounding something like 'Urviphl Urmphf uttered in a 
hoarse and dissatisfied tone. A turn in the forest explained the 
mystery, by bringing me face to face with a tame working Ele- 
phant unaccompanied by any driver or attendant. He was labor- 
ing painfully with a heavy beam of timber, which he had balanced 
across his tusks and was carrying to the village from which I had 
come. 

" The pathway being narrow, he was compelled to bend his head 



THE ELEFHAMT. 



361 




l.i,Ll llA-sl ^ W All U1..1. 1 i-A< L 



i6 



362 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

to one side to permit the passage of the long piece of wood, aud 
the exertion and inconvenience combined, led him to utter the 
dissatisfied sounds which had frightened my horse. 

'' On seeing us halt, the Elephant raised his head, looked at us 
for a moment, then dropped the timber, and forced himself back- 
ward among the bushes at the side of the road, so as to leave us 
plenty of room to pass. 

" My horse still hesitated ; the Elephant observed this, and im- 
patiently crowded himself still deeper in the jungle, repeating his 
cry of, 'Urmphf Urmphf but in a voice evidently meant to 
encourage us to come on. Still the horse trembled ; and, anxious 
to observe the conduct of the two sagacious creatures, I forbore 
any interference. Again the Elephant wedged himself farther in 
among the trees and waited for us to pass him. At last the horse 
timidly did so, after which I saw the wise Elephant come out 
ot the wood, take up the heavy timber upon his tusks, and resume 
his route, hoarsely snorting, as before, his discontented remon- 
strance." 

Although so valuable an animal for certain kinds of work, the 
Elej^hant is hardly so effective an assistant as might be supposed. 
The working Elephant is always a delicate animal, and requires 
watchfulness and care ; as a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory, 
for, although in the matter of mere strength there is hardly any 
weight that could be conveniently placed on him which he could 
not carry, it is difficult to pack it without causing abrasions of 
the Elephant's skin, which afterwards ulcerate. 

His skin is easily chafed by harness, especially in wet weather. 
Either during long droughts, or too much moisture, his feet are 
also liable to sores which render him useless for months. 

In India the Elephant is used more for purposes of state display 
or for hunting than for hard labor. It is especially trained for 
tiger-hunting, and, as there is a natural dread of the terrible tiger 
deeply implanted in almost all Elephants, it is no easy matter to 
teach the animal to approach his powerful foe. 

A stuffed tiger-skin is employed for this purpose, and is con- 
tinually shown to the Elephant until he learns to lose all distrust 
of the inanimate object, and to strike it, to crush it with his feet, 
or to pierce it with his tusks. 

After a while a boy is put inside the tiger-skin, in order to 
accustom the Elephant to the sight of the tiger in motion. 



THE ELEPHANT. 



363 




364 



STOMY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



The last stage in the proceedings is to procure a dead tiger, 
and to substitute it for the stuffed skin. Even with all this train- 
ing, it most frequently happens that when the Elephant is brought 
to face a veritable living tiger the furious bounds, the savage yells, 
and gleaming eyes of the beast are so terrifying that he turns tail 
and makes a hasty retreat. Hardly one Elephant out of ten will 
face an angry tiger. The Elephant, when used in tiger-hunting, 
is always guided by a native driver, called a mahout, who sits 
astride of the animal's neck and guides its movements by means 
of the voice and the use of an iron hook at the end of a short stick. 

The hunters who ride upon the Elephant sit in a kind of box 
called a howdah, which is strapped firmly upon the animal's back, 
or else merely rests upon a large flat pad furnished with cross-ropes 
for maintaining a firm hold. The Elephant generally kneels to 




THE TIGER IN THE REEDS. 



enable the riders to mount, and then rises from the ground with a 
peculiar swinging motion that is most discomposing to beginners in 
the art. 

The chase of the tiger is among the most exciting and favourite 
sports in India. When starting on a hunt, a number of hunters 
usually assemble, mounted on Elephants trained for the purpose, 
and carrying with them a supply of loaded rifles in their howdahs, 
or carriages mounted on the Elephants' backs. Thus armed, they 
proceed *to the spot where a tiger has been seen. The animal is 
usually found hidden in the long grass or jungle, which is fre- 



THE ELEPHANT. 



365 



quently eiglit or more feet in height; and when roused, it endeavours 
to creep away under the grass. The movement of the leaves betrays 
him, and he is checked by a rifie-ball aimed at him through the 
jungle. Finding that he cannot escape without being seen, he 
turns round and springs at the nearest Elephant, endeavouring to 
clamber up it and attack the party in the howdah. This is the 
most dangerous part of the proceedings, as many Elephants will 
turn round and run aw^ay, regardless of the efforts of their drivers 
to make them face the tiger. Should, however, the Elephant stand 
firm, a well-directed ball checks the tiger in his spring ; and he 
then endeavours to again escape, but a volley of rifle-balls from 
the backs of the other Elephants, who by this time have come up, 
lays the savage animal prostrate, and in a very short time his skin 
decorates the successful marksman's howdah. 




K'K ',/>" 



366 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 




THE CONEY, OR HYRAX. 



The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of the word — Identification 
of the Shaphan with the Syrian Hyrax — Description of the animal — Its feet, 
teeth, and apparent rumination — Passages in which the Coney is mentioned — 
Habits of the animal — Its activit)'^ and wariness — The South African Hyrax, 
and its mode of life — Difficulty of procuring it — Similarity in appearance and 
habits of the Syrian species — Three species of Hyrax known to naturalists 



Among the many animals mentioned in the Bible, there is 
one which is evidently of some importance in the Jewish code, 
inasmuch as it is twice named in the Mosaic law. 

That it was also familiar to the Jews is evident from other 
references which are made to its habits. This animal is the 
Shaphan of the Hebrew language, a word which has very 
wrongly been translated in the Authorized Version as Coney, 
*.c. Rabbit, the creature in question not being a rabbit, nor even 
a rodent. No rabbit haic ever been discovered in Palestine, and 



THE CONEY. 



367 



naturalists have agreed that the true Coney or Babbit has never 
inhabited the Holy Land. There is no doubt that the Shaph-an 
of the Hebrew Scripture, and the Coney of the Vulgate, was the 
Syrian HyPvAX {Hyrax Syriacus). This little animal is rathei 
larger than an ordinary rabbit, is not unlike it in appearance, 
and has many of its habits. It is clothed with brown fur, it is 
very active, it inhabits holes and clefts in rocks, and it has in 
the front of its mouth long chisel-shaped teeth, very much like 
those of the rabbit. Consequently, it was classed by naturalists 




among the rodents for many years, under the name of Rock 
Rabbit. Yet, as I have already mentioned, it is not even a 
rodent, but belongs to the pachydermatous group of animals, and 
occupies an intermediate place between the rhinoceros and the 
hippopotamus. 

If it be examined carefully, the rodent-like teeth will be seen 
to resemble exactly the long curved tusks of the hippopotamus, 



368 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

with their sharp and chisel-edged tips; the little feet, on a 
close inspection, are seen to be furnished with a set of tiny 
hoofs just like those of the rhinoceros ; and there are many other 
points in its structure which, to the eye of a naturalist, point 
out its true place in nature. 

In common with the rodents, and other animals which have 
similarly-shaped teeth, the Hyrax, when at rest, is continually 
working its jaws from side to side, a movement which it instinc- 
tively performs, in order that the chiselled edges of the upper 
and lower teeth may be preserved sharp by continually rubbing 
against each other, and that they may not be suffered to grow 
too long, and so to deprive the animal of the means whereby it 
gains its food. But for this peculiar movement, which looks 
very like the action of ruminating, the teeth would grow fur 
beyond the mouth, as they rapidly deposit dental material in 
their bases in order to supply the waste caused at their tips by 
the continual friction of the edges against each other. 

It may seem strange that an animal which is classed with the 
elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, aU bare-skinned 
animals, should be clothed with a furry coat. The reader may 
perhaps remember that the Hyrax does not afford a solitary 
instance of this structure, and that, although the elephants oi 
our day have only a few bristly hairs thinly scattered over the 
body, those of former days were clad in a thick and treble coat 
of fur and hair. 

There are four passages of Scripture in which the Coney is 
mentioned — two in which it is prohibited as food, and two in 
which allusion is made to its manner of Life. In order to 
understand the subject better, we will take them in their order. 

The first mention of the Coney occurs in Leviticus xi. 5, 
among the list of clean and unclean animals : " The coney, 
because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is 
unclean unto you." The second is of a like nature, and is to be 
found in Deut. xiv. 7: "These ye shaU not eat of them that 
chew the cud, or of them that divide the cloven hoof; as the 
camel, and the hare, and the coney : for they chew the cud, but 
divide not the hoof ; therefore they are unclean unto you." 

The remaining passages, which describe the habits of the 
Coney, are as follow. The first alludes to the rock-loving 



THE CONEY. 369 

habits of tlie animal : " The high hills are a refuge for the wild 
goats, and the rocks for the conies." (Ps. civ. 18.) The second 
makes a similar mention of the localities which the aninrnl 
frequents, and in addition speaks of its wariness, including it 
among the " four things which are little upon the earth, but they 
are exceedingly wise." The four are the ants, the locusts, the 
spiders, and the Conies, which " are but a feeble folk, yet make 
they their houses in the rocks." 

We will take these passages in their order. 

It has already been mentioned that the Ilyrax, a true pachy- 
derm, does not merely chew the cu-d, but that the peculiar and 
constant movement of its jaws strongly resembles the act of 
rumination. The Jews, ignorant as they were of scientific 
zoology, would naturally set down the Hyrax as a ruminant, and 
would have been likely to eat it, as its flesh is very good. It 
must be remembered that two conditions were needful to render 
an animal fit to be eaten by a Jew, the one that it must be a 
ruminant, and the second that it should have a divided hoof. 
Granting, therefore, the presence of the former qualification, 
Moses points out the absence of the latter, thereby prohibiting 
the animal as eifectually as if he had entered into a question of 
comparative anatomy, and proved that the Hyrax was incapable 
of rumination. 

We now come to the habits of the animal. 

As we may gather from the passages of Scripture which have 
already been m.entioned, the Hyrax inhabits rocky places, and 
lives in the clefts that are always found in such localities. It is 
an exceedingly active creature, leaping from rock to rock with 
wonderful rapidity, its little sharp hoofs giving it a firm 
hold of the hard and irregular surface of the stony gi'ound. 
Even in captivity it retains much of its activity, and flies about 
its cage with a rapidity that seems more suitable to a squirrel 
than to an animal allied to the rhinoceros and hippopotamus. 

There are several species — perhaps only varieties — of the 
Hyrax, all of them identical in habits, and almost precisely 
similar in appearance. The best known of these animals is that 
which inhabits Southern Africa {Hyrax Capensis), and wliich is 
familiar to the colonists by its name of Klip-das, or Rock-rabbit. 
In situations which suit it, the Hyrax is very plentiful, and is 
much hunted by the natives, who esteem its flesh very highly. 
i6* 



370 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Bmall and insignificant as it appears to be, even Europeans 
think that to kill the Hyrax is a tolerable test of sportsmanship, 
the wariness of the animal being so great that much hunter's 
craft is required to approach it. 

The following account of the Hyrax has been furnished to me 
by Major A. W. Drayson, E.A. : — " In the Cape Colony, and over 
a great portion of Southern Africa, this little creature is found. 
It is never, as far as my experience goes, seen in great numbers, 
as we find rabbits in England, though the caution of the animal 
is such as to enable it to remain safe in districts from which 
other animals are soon exterminated. 

" As its name implies, it is found among rocks, in the crevices 
and holes of which it finds a retreat. When a natural cavity is 
not found, the klip-das scratches a hole in the ground under the 
rocks, and burrows like a common rabbit. In size it is about 
equalto a hare, though it is much shorter in the legs, and has 
ears more like those of a rat than a rabbit. Its skin is covered 
with fur, thick and woolly, as though intended for a colder 
climate than that in which it is usually found ; and, when seen 
from a distance, it looks nearly black. 

" The rock-rabbit is a very watchful creature, and usually 
feeds on the summit of any piece of rock near its home, always 
choosing one from which it can obtain a good view of the sur- 
rounding country. When it sees an enemy approaching, it 
sits rigidly on the rock and watches him without moving, so 
that at a little distance it is almost impossible to distinguish 
it from the rock on which it sits. When it does move, it darts 
quickly out of sight, and disappears into its burrow with a 
sudden leap. 

" In consequence of its activity and cunning, the rock-rabbit 
is seldom killed by white men ; and when a hunter does secure 
one, it is generally by means of a long shot. The natives usually 
watch near its burrow, or noiselessly stalk it, 

" I once killed one of these animals by a very long shot 
from a rifle, as it was sitting watching us from the top of a large 
boulder, at a distance of a hundred and fifty yards or there- 
abouts. The Dutch Boers who were with me were delighted at 
the sight of it, as they said it was good eating ; and so it proved 
to be, the flesh being somewhat like that of a hare, though in 
our rough field-cookery we could not do justice to it." 



THE CONEY. 371 

This Bhort narrative excellently illustrates the character of the 
animal, wliich is classed among the " four things which be ex- 
ceeding wise." It is so crafty that no trap or snare ever set 
has induced a Hyrax to enter it, and so wary that it is with 
difficulty to be killed even with the aid of fire-arms. " No 
animal," writes Mr. Tristram, " ever gave us so much trouble to 
secure. . . . The only chance of securing one is to be concealed, 
particularly about sunset or before sunrise, on some overhanging 
cliff, taking care not to let the shadow be cast below, and then 
to wait until the little creatures cautiously peep forth from their 
holes. They are said to be common by those who have not 
looked for thein, but are certainly not abundant in Palestine, 
and few writers have ever had more than a single glimpse of one. 
I had the good fortune to see one feeding in the gorge of the 
Kedron, and then to watch it as it sat at the mouth of its hole, 
ruminating, metaphorically if not literally, while waiting for 
sunset." 

Should the Hyrax manage to catch a glimpse of the enemy, it 
utters a shrill cry or squeal, and darts at once to its hole — an 
action which is followed by all its companions as soon as they 
hear the warning cry. It is a tolerably prolific animal, rearing 
four or five young at a birth, and keeping them in a soft bed of 
hay and fur, in which they are almost hidden. If surprised in 
its hole and seized, the Hyrax will bite very sharply, its long 
chisel-edged teeth inflicting severe wounds on the hand that 
attempts to grasp it. But it is of a tolerably docile disposition, 
and in a short time learns to know its owner, and to delight in 
receiving: his caresses. 

Three species of Hyrax are known to naturalists. One is the 
Klip-das, or Kock-rabbit, of Southern Africa ; the second is the 
Ashkoko of Abyssinia ; and the third is the Syrian Hyrax, or 
the Coney of the Bible. The two last species have often been 
confounded together, but the Syrian animal may be known 
by the oblong pale spot on the middle of its back. 







illPPOPOTAMUS. 



BEHEMOTH. 

Literal translation of the word Behcmotli — Yarious theories respecting the 
identity of the animal — The Hippopotamus known to the ancient Hebrews — 
Geograrphical range of the animal — "He eateth grass like the ox" — Ravages 
of the Hippopotamus among the crops — Structure of the mouth and teeth — 
The " sword or scythe " of the Hippopotamus — Some strange theories— Haunts 
of the Hippopotamus — The Egyptian hunter — A valuable painting — Strength 
of the Hippopotamus — Rising of the Nile — Modern hunters — "Wariness of the 
Hippopotamus — The pitfall and the drop-trap. 

In the concluding part of that wonderful poem which is so 
familiar to us as the Book of Job, the Lord is represented as re- 
proving the murmurs of Job, by showing that he could not even 
understand the mysteries of the universe, much less the purposes 
of the Creator. By presuming to bring a charge of injustice 
against his Maker, he in fact inferred that the accuser was more 
competent to govern the world than was the Creator, and thus 
laid himself open to the unanswerable irony of the splendid 
passages contained in chapters xl. xli., which show that man 
cannot even rule the animals, his fellow- creatures, much less 
control the destinies of the human race. 

The passages with which we are at present concerned are to 
be found at the end of the fortieth chapter, and contain a mos» 

372 



BOHEMOTH. 373 

powerful description of some animal which is called by the 
name of Behemoth. Now this word only occurs once in the 
whole of the Scriptures, i.e. in Job xL 15: "Behold now 
behemoth, which I made with thee," &c. Some commentators, 
in consequence of the plural termination of the word, which 
may be literally translated as " beasts," have thought that it wag 
a collective term for all the largest beasts of the world, such as 
the elephant, the hippopotamus, the wild cattle, and their like. 
Others have thought that the elephant was signified by the word 
Behemoth ; and some later writers, acquainted with palseon- 
tology, have put forward a conjecture that the Behemoth must 
have been some extinct pachydermatous animal, like the dino- 
therium, in which might be combined many of the qualities of 
the elephant and hippopotamus. 

It is now, however, agreed by all Biblical scholars and natu- 
ralists, that the hippopotamus, and no other animal, is the crea- 
ture which was signified by the word Behemoth, and this inter- 
pretation is followed in the Jewish Bible. 

We will now take the whole of the passage, and afterwards 
examine it by degrees, comparing the Authorized Version with 
the Jewish Bible, and noting at the same time one or two vari- 
ations in the rendering of certain phrases. The passage is given 
as follows in the Jewish Bible, and may be compared with our 
Authorized Version : — 

" Behold now the river-horse, which I liave made with thee : 
he eateth grass like an ox. 

" Lo now, his strength is in his loins, and his vigour is in the 
muscles of his body. 

" He moveth his tail like a cedar : the sinews of his thighs are 
wrapped together. 

"His bones are pipes of copper; his bones are like bars 
of iron. 

" He is the chief of the ways of God : he that made him can 
alone reach his sword. 

" That the mountains should bring forth food for him, and all 
the beasts of the field play there. 

" He lieth under wild lotuses, in the covert of the reed, 
and fens. 

"Wild lotuses cover him with their shadow; willows jf tlie 
brook compass him about. 



374 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

" Behold, should a river overflow, he hasteth not : he feels 
secure should Jordan burst forth up to his mouth. 

" He taketh it in with his eyes : his nose pierceth through 
snares." 

We will now take this description in detail, and see how far 
it applies to the now familiar hahits of the hippopotamus. A 
little allowance must of course be made for poetical imagery, but 
we shall find that in all important details the accoimt of the 
Behemoth agrees perfectly with the appearaace and habits of 
the hippopotamus. 

In the first place, it is evident that we may dismiss from our 
minds the idea that the Behemoth was an extinct pachyderm 
The whole tenor of the p£issage shows that it must have been 
an animal then existing, and whose habits were familiar to Job 
and his friends. !N'ow the date of the Book of Job could not 
have been earlier than about 1500 B.C., and in, consequence, 
the ideas of a palaeozoic animal must be discarded. 

We may also dismiss the elephant, inasmuch as it was most 
unlikely that Job should have known anything about the 
animal, and it is certain that he could not have attained the 
familiarity with its appearance and habits which is inferred by 
the context. Moreover, it cannot be said of the elephant that 
•' he eateth grass as an ox." The elephant feeds chiefly on the 
leaves of trees, and when he does eat grass, he cannot do so 
" like an ox," but plucks it with his proboscis, and then puts the 
green tufts into his mouth. So characteristic a gesture as this 
would never have passed unnoticed in a description so full of 
detail 

That the hippopotamus was known to the ancient Hebrews is 
certain. After their sojourn in Egypt they had necessarily 
become familiarized with it ; and if, as most commentators be- 
lieve, the date of the Book of Job be subsequent to the liberation 
of the Israelites, there is no difficulty in assuming that Job and 
his companions were well acquainted with the animal. Even if 
the book be of an earlier date, it is still possible that the hippo- 
potamus may, in those days, have lived in rivers where it is now 
as much extinct as it is in England. ^Ir. Tristram remarks on 
this point : " Xo hippopotamus is found in Asia, but there is no 
reason for asserting that it may not have had an eastern range as 
far as Palestine, and wallowed in the Jordan ; for its bones ai€ 




THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 



376 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



toiind in the debris of the rivers of Algeria, flowdng into the 
Mediterranean, when tradition is quite silent as to its former 
existence. 

There is no douht that the hippopotamus and the urus were 
the two largest animals known to the Jews, and it is probably 
on that account that the former received the name of Behemoth. 

Assuming, therefore, that the Behemoth is identical with the 
hippopotamus, we will proceed with the description. 

" He eateth gi'ass like the ox." The word which is here 
rendered " grass " is translated in Numb. xi. 5 as " leeks." It 
means, something that is green, and is probably used to signify 
green herbage of any description. Now it is perfectly true of 
the hippopotamus that it eats grass like an ox, or like cattle, as 
the passage may be translated. In order to supply its huge 




THE GKEAT JAWS OF THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 



massive body with nourishment, it consumes vast quantities of 
food. The mouth is enormously broad and shovel-shaped, so as to 
take in a large quantity of food at once ; and the gape is so wide, 
that when the animal opeus its jaws to their full extent it seems to 
split its head into two nearly equal portions. This great mobility 
of jaw is assisted by the peculiar form of the gape, which takes a 
sudden turn upwards, and reaches almost to the eyes. 

Just as the mouth is formed to contain a vast quantity of 



BOHEMOTH. 



377 



'llilll'lll V'l 5 




378 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

food, so the jaws and teeth are made to procure it. From the 
front of the lower jaw the incisor teeth project horizontally, no 
longer performing the ordinary duties of teeth, but being modi- 
fied into tusks, which are in all probability used as levers for 
prising up the vegetables on which the animal lives. But the 
most singular portion of the jaw is the mode in which the canine 
teeth are modified so as to resemble the incisor teeth of rodents, 
and to perform a similar office. 

These teeth are very long, curved, and chisel-edged at their 
tips, their shape being preserved by continual attrition, just as 
has been mentioned of the hyrax. The material of the teeth is 
peculiarly hard, so much so, indeed, that it is in great request for 
artificial teeth, the " verniers " of philosophical instruments, and 
similar purposes. Consequently, with these teeth the hippopo- 
tamus can cut through the stems of tliick and strong herbage as 
with shears, and the strength of its jaws is so great that an 
angered hippopotamus has been known to bite a man completely 
in two, and to crush a canoe to fragments with a single move- 
ment of its enormous jaws. 

Keeping this description in our minds, we shall see how true 
is the statement in verse 19. This passage is not adequately 
rendered in the Authorized Version : the word which is translated 
as "sword" also signifies a scythe, and evidently having that 
meaning in the text. The passage is best translated thus : " His 
Maker hath furnished him with his scythe." 

The havoc which such an animal can make among growing 
crops may be easily imagined. It is fond of leaving the river, 
and forcing its way into cultivated grounds, where it eats vast 
quantities of green food, and destroys as much as it eats, by the 
trampling of its heavy feet. Owing to the width of the animal, 
the feet are placed very far apart, and the consequence is that 
the hippopotamus makes a double path, the feet of each side 
trampling down the herbage, and causing the track to look like 
a double rut, with an elevated ridge between them. 

Some little difficulty has been made respecting the passage in 
verse 20, " Surely the mountains bring him forth food." Com- 
mentators ignorant of the habits of the hippopotamus, and not 
acquauited with the character of the country where it Hves, have 
thought that the animal only lived in the rivers, and merely 
found its food along its banks, or at most upon the marshes at 



BOHEMOTH. 379 

the river-side. The hippopotamus, say they, is not a dweller od 
the mountains, but an inhabitant of the river, and therefore thih- 
passage caunot rightly be applied to the animal. 

Now, in the first place, the word harim, which is translated as 
" mountains " in the Authorized Version, is rendered as " hills " by 
many Hebraists. Moreover, as we know from many passages of 
Scripture, the word " mountain " is applied to any elevated spot, 
without reference to its height. Such places are very common 
along the banks of the Nile, and are employed for the culture of 
vegetables, which would not grow properly upon the flat and 
marshy lands around them. These spots are very attractive to 
the hippopotamus, who likes a change of diet, and thus finds food 
upon the mountains. In many parts of Egypt the river runs 
through a mountainous country, so that the hills are within a 
very short distance of the water, and arc easily reached by the 
hippopotamus. 




Tllh HIfPOPOrAMU> LMING G.KA<5S 

We will now proceed to the next verse. After mentioning 
that the Behemoth can eat grass like an ox, and finds its food 
upon the hills, the sacred writer proceeds to show that in its 
moments of repose it is an inhabitant of the rivers and marshy 
ground : " He lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the 
reed, and fens. 

" The shady trees cover him with their shadow ; the willows 
of the brook compass him about." 

Here I may remind the reader that the compound Hebrew word 
which is rendered in the Authorized Version as " shady trees " is 
translated by some persons as " wild lotuses" — a rendering which 
is followed by the editor of the Jewish Bible. Apparently, 
however, the Authorized Version gives a more correct meaning 
of the term. Judging from a well-known Egyptian painting, 



380 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

which represents a hunter in the act of harpooning th^ hippo- 
potamus, the tall papyrus reeds are the plants that are signified 
by this word, which occurs in no other place in the Scriptures. 

Nothing can be more accurate than this description of the 
habits of the animal. I have now before me a number of sketches 
by Mr. T. Baines, representing various incidents in the life of the 
hippopotamus ; and in one or two of them, the little islands that 
stud the river, as well as the banks themselves, are thickly 
clothed with reeds mixed with papyrus, the whole being exactly 
similar to those which are represented in the conventional style 
of Egyptian art. These spots are the favourite haunts of the 
hippopotamus, which loves to lie under their shadow, its whole 
body remaining concealed in the water, and only the eyes, ears, 
and nostrils appearing above the surface. 

As reference will be made to this painting when we come to 
the Leviathan, it will be as well to describe it in detail. In 
order that the reader should fully understand it, I have had it 
translated, so to speak, from the conventional outline of Egyptian 
art into perspective, exactly as has been done with the; Assyrian 
and Egyptian chariots. 

In the foreground is seen the hunter, standing on a boat that 
closely resembles the raft-boat which is still in use in several 
parts of Africa. It is made of the very light wood called 
ambatch, by cutting down the requisite number of trees, laying 
them side by side so that their bases form the stern and their 
points the bow of the extemporized boat. They are then firmly 
lashed together, the pointed ends turned upwards, and the simple 
vessel is complete, It is, in fact, nothing more than a raft of 
triangular shape, but the wood is so buoyant that it answers 
every purpose. 

In his hand the hunter grasps the harpoon which he is about 
to launch at the hippopotamus. This is evidently the same 
weapon which is still employed for that purpose. It consists of 
a long shaft, into the end of which a barbed iron point is loosely 
inserted. To the iron point is attached one end of a rope, and 
to the other end, which is held in the left hand of the harpooner, 
a float of ambatch wood is fastened. 

When the weapon is thrown, the furious struggles of the 
wounded animal disengage the shaft of the harpoon, which is 
regained by the hunter ; and as it dashes through the water, 



BOHEMOTB. 



381 



throwing up spray as it goes, the ambatch float keeps the end of 
the rope at the surface, so that it can be seen as soon as the 
animal becomes quieter. Sometimes it dives to the bottom, and 
remains there as long as its breath can hold out ; and when it 




A HIPI'OPOTAMUS HUNT IN EGYPT. 

(This picture is takeu fioni an ancient Egyptian paintii 



comes up to breathe, it only pushes the nostrils out of the water 
under the shadow of the reeds, so that but for the float it might 
manage to escape. 

In the meantime, guided by the float, the hunter follows the 
course of the animal, and, as soon as it comes within reach of 
his weapon, drives anotli(;r spear into it, and so proceeds until 
the animal dies from loss of blood. The modern hunters never 



382 STOUT OF THE BtBLJEl ANIMALS. 

throw a second harpoon unless the one abeady fixed gives way, 
mainly employing a spear to inflict the last wounds. But if we 
may judge from this painting, the Egyptian hunter attached a 
new rope with every cast of his weapon, and, when the liippo- 
potamus became weak from its wounds, gathered up the ru[-ea 
and came to close quarters. 

In the bow of the boat is the hunter's assistant, armed with a 
rope made lasso-wise into a noose, which he is throwing over 
the head of the hippopotamus, whose attitude and expression 
show evidently, in spite of the rudeness of the drawing, the 
impotent anger of the weakened animal. 

Behind the liippopotamus are the tall and dense reeds and 
papyrus imder the shelter of which the animal loves to lie, and 
on the surface of the water float the beautiful white flowers of 
the lotus. 

In the Egyptian painting, the artist, in spite of the conven- 
tionalities to which he was bound, has depicted the whole scene 
with skill and spirit The head and open mouth of the hippo- 
potamus are remarkably fine, and show that the artist who drew 
the animal must have seen it when half mad with pain, and 
half dead from loss of blood. 

The enormous strength of the hippopotamus is shown in 
verses 16, 18, the last of which passages requires a little explana- 
tion. Two difierent words are used here to express the bones of 
the animal. The first is derived from a word signifying strength, 
and means the " strong bones," i.e. those of the legs. These are 
hollow, and are therefore aptly compared to tubes or pipes of 
copper. The second term is thought by some Hebraists to refer 
to the rib-bones, which are solid, and therefore are not likened 
to tubes, but to bars of iron. 

The 23d verse has been translated rather variously. The 
Authorized Version can be seen by reference to a Bible, and 
another translation, that of the Jewish Bible, is given on page 
374. A third, and perhaps the best rendering of this passage is 
given by the Eev. W. Drake, in Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible:" 
" Lo, the river swelleth proudly against him, yet he is not 
alarmed ; he is securely confident though a Jordan burst forth 
against his mouth." 

In all probability reference is here made to the annual rising 
of the Nile, and the inundations which it causes. In som«< 



SOHEMOTJff, 383 

years, when it rises much above its usual height, the floods 
become most disastrous. Whole villages are swept away, and 
scarcely a vestige of the mud-built houses is left; the dead 
bodies of human beings are seen intermixed with those of cattle, 
and the whole country is one scene of desolation. Yet the 
almost amphibious hippopotamus cares nothing for the floods, 
as long as it can find food, and so, " though the river swelleth 
proudly against him," he is not alarmed. 

From the use of the word "Jordan " in the same verse, it might 
be thought that the river of Palestine was intended. This, 
however, is not the case. The word " Jordan " is simply used as a 
poetical term for any river, and is derived from a Hebrew 
word which signifies " descending quickly." 

We now come to the last verse of this noble debcription: " He 
taketh it in with his eyes." These words have also been variously 
rendered, some translating them as " He receiveth it {i.e. the 
river) up to his eyes." But the translation which seems to suit 
the context best is, " Who will take him when in his sight ? His 
nose pierceth through (i.e. detects) snares." Now, this faculty 
of detecting snares is one of the chief characteristics of the 
hippopotamus, when it lives near places inhabited by mankind, 
who are always doing their best to destroy it. In the first 
place, its body gives them an almost unlimited supply of flesh, 
the fat is very highly valued for many purposes, the teeth are 
sold to the ivory-dealers, and the hide is cut up. into whips, or 
khoorbashes. 

There is now before me a khoorbash, purchased from a native 
Egyptian who was beating a servant with it. The whip is 
identical with that which was used by the ancient Egyptians in 
urging the Israelites to their tasks, and the scene reminded the 
traveller so forcibly of the old Scriptural times that he rescued 
the unfortunate servant, and purchased the khoorbash, which is 
now in my collection. 

Not content with hunting the hippopotamus, the natives 
contrive various traps, either pitfalls or drop-traps. The former 
are simply pits dug in the path of the animal, covered with 
sticks and reeds, and having at the bottom a sharp stake on 
which the victim is impaled, and so effectually prevented from 
escaping or damaging the pit by its struggles. 

The drop-trap is a log of wood, weighted with stones, and 



384 



STonY OP THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



having at one end an iron spike, which is sometimes poisoned. 
The path which the animal takes is watched, a conveniently 
overhanging branch is selected, and from that branch the cruel 
spear is suspended, by a catch or trigger, exactly over the centre 
of the path. There is no difficulty in finding the precise centre 




AM us ANIJ TKAl 



of the path, owing to the peculiar gait of the animal, which 
has already been described. One end of the trigger supports 
the spear, and to the other is attached a rope, which is brought 
across the path in such a way that when touched it relieves the 
Bpear, which is driven deeply into the animal's back. If well 
hung, the spear-blade divides the spine, and the wounded animal 



BEHEMOTH. 385 

fells on the spot, but, even if it should miss a vital part, tha 
poison soon does its fatal work. 

In consequence of the continual persecution to which it is 
subjected, the hippopotamus becomes exceedingly wary, and, 
huge, clumsy, and blundering as it looks, is clever enough to 
detect either pitfall or drop-trap that have not been contrived 
with especial care. An old and experienced hippopotamus 
becomes so wary that he will be suspicious even of a bent twig, 
and, rather than venture across it, he will leave the path, force 
for himself a roundabout passage, and return to the path beyond 
the object that alarmed him. 

Mr, T. Baines, to whose sketches I am indebted for the 
illustration, told me that the hippopotamus is possessed of 
much more intellect than might be expected from a creature 
of so dull, clumsy, and unpromising aspect. Apathetic it 
generally is, and, as long as it is left unmolested, does not 
care to molest even the human beings that intrude upon its 
repose. 

It likes to He in the shade of the reeds and rushes, and may 
be seen floating in the water, with only the nostrils, the eyes, 
and the ears above the surface, these organs being set in a line 
along the head, evidently for the purpose of allowing the whole 
body to be hidden under water while the three most important 
senses are capable of acting. 

A canoe-man who knows the habits of the hippopotamus will 
fearlessly take his fragile vessel through a herd of the animals, 
knowing that, if he only avoids contact with them, they will 
not interfere with him. The only danger is, that a hippopotamus 
may rise under the canoe, and strike itself against the boat, in 
which case the animal is rather apt to consider the intruding 
object as an enemy, and to attack it, sometimes crushing the 
ca-noe between its teeth, and mostly upsetting it, and throwing 
the crew into the water. In such a case, the men always dive 
at once to the bottom of the river, and hold on to some weed or 
rock as long as they can exist without breathing. The reason 
. for this proceeding is, that the hippopotamus always looks for 
its enemy upon the surface of the water, and, if the men' were 
to swim to shore, they would be caught and killed before they 
had swum many strokes. But, as it sees nothing but the 
damaged canoe, its short-lived anger vanishes, and it sinks again 
17 



386 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



into the river, leaving the men at liberty to regain and repaiT 
their vessel. 

There is one passage in the description of the Behemoth 
which requires a few words of explanation ; " He moveth his 
tail like a cedar " (v. 17). 

Several commentators have imagined that this expression 
shows that the Behemoth must have been an animal which had 
a very long and powerful tail, and have adduced the passage as a 
proof that the crocodile was the animal that was signified by 
the Behemoth. Others, again, have shifted the position of the 
tail, and, by rendering it as the " proboscis," have identified the 
Behemoth with the elephant. There is, however, no necessity 
for straining the interpretation, the passage evidently signifying 
that the member in question is stiff and inflexible as the cedar- 
steau 





um ^^^v 



1 ./ 



THE APE. 

The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture — Why the Ape wa3 introduced 
into Palestine — Solomon's ships, and their cargo of Apes, peacocks, ivory, and 
gold — Various species of Monkey that might have been imported — Habits of 
the Monkey, and reverence in which it is held by the natives — The Egyptians 
and their Baboon worship — Idols and memorials — The Wanderoo — its singular 
aspect — Reasons why it should be introduced into Palestine — General habits of 
the Wanderoo — Various species of Monkey that may te included in the term 
" Kophim." 



Animals belonging to the monkey tribe are but sparingly 
mentioned in Holy Writ, If, as is possible, the Satyr of 
Scripture signifies some species of baboon, there are but three 
passages either in the Old or New Testament where these 
animals are mentioned. In 1 Kings x. 22, and the parallel 
passage 2 Chron. ix. 21, the sacred historian makes a passing 
allusion to apes as forming part of the valuable cargoes which 
were brought by Solomon's fleet to Tharshish, the remaining 

387 



SSS STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS, 

articles being gold, ivory, and peacocks. The remaining passage 
occurs in Is. xiii. 21, where the prophet foretells that on the 
site of Babylon satyrs shall dance. 

The reason for this reticence is simple enough, N"o monkey 
was indigenous to Palestine when the various writers of the 
Bible lived, and all their knowledge of such animals must have 
been derived either from the description of sailors, or from the 
sight of the few specimens that were brought as curiosities from 
foreign lands. Such specimens must have been extremely rare, 
or they would not have been mentioned as adjuncts to the 
wealth of Solomon, the wealthiest, as well as the wisest monarch 
of his time. To the mass of the people they must have been 
practically unknown, and therefore hold but a very inferior place 
in the Scriptures, which were addressed to aU mankind. 

There is scarcely any familiar animal, bird, reptile or insect, 
which is not used in some metaphorical sense in the imagery 
which pervades the whole of the Scriptures. For example, 
the various carnivorous animals, such as the lion, woK, and 
bear, are used as emblems of destruction in various ways ; while 
the carnivorous birds, such as the eagle and hawk, and the 
destructive insects, such as the locust and the caterpillar, are 
all similarly employed in strengthening and illustrating the 
words of Holy Writ. 

But we never find any animal of the monkey tribe mentioned 
metaphorically, possibly because any monkeys that were im- 
ported into Palestine must only have been intended as objects of 
curiosity, just as the peacocks which accompanied them were 
objects of beauty, and the gold and ivory objects of value — aU 
being employed in the decoration of the king's palace. 

The question that now comes before us is the species of 
monkey that is signified by the Hebrew word Kophim. In 
modern days, we distinguish this tribe of animals into three 
great sections, namely, the apes, the baboons, and the monkey ; 
and according to this arrangement the ape, being without tails, 
must have been either the chimpanzee of Africa, the orang-outan 
of Sumatra, or one of the Gibbons. But there is no reason to 
imagine that the word Kophim was intended to represent any 
one of these animals, and it seems evident that the word was 
applied to any species of monkey, whether it had a tail or not. 

Perhaps the best method of ascertaining approximately the 



THE APE. 



389 



particular species of monkey, is to notice the land from which 
the animals came. Accordingly, we find that the ships of 
Solomon brought gold, ivory, apes, and peacocks, and that they 
evidently brought their cargoes from the same country. Conse- 
quently, the country in question must produce gold, and must be 
inhabited by the monkey tribe, by the elephant, and by the 
peacock. If the peacock had not been thus casually mentioned, 
we should have been at a loss to identify the particular country 
to which reference is made ; but the mention of that bird shows 
that some part of Asia must be signified. It is most probable 




THE RHESUS MONKEY. 



that the vessels in question visited both India and Ceylon, although, 
owing to the very imperfect geographical knowledge of the period, 
it is not possible to assert absolutely that this is the case. In 
India, however, and the large island of Ceylon, gold, elephants, 
peacocks, and monkeys exist; and therefore we will endeavour 
to identify the animals which are mentioned under the general 
term Apes, or Kophim. 

We are quite safe in suggesting that some of the apes in ques- 
tion must have belonged to the Macaques, and it is most likely 
that one of them was the Rhesus Monkey, 



390 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



This animal is very plentiful in India, and is one of the many 
creatures which are held sacred by the natives. Consequently, 
it takes up its quarters near human habitations, feehng sure that 
it will not be injured, and knowing that plenty of food is at 
hand. It is said that in some parts of India the natives always 
leave one-tenth of their grain-crops for the monkeys, and thus 




FEEDI>-G THE MONKEYS LN" IXDIA. 



the animals content themselves with this offering, and refraia 
from devastating the fields, as they would otherwise do. This 
story may be true or not. It is certainly possible that in a long 
series of years the monkeys of that neighbourhood have come to 
look upon their tithe as a matter belonging to the ordinary 
course of things ; but whether it be true or not, it illustrates the 
reverence entertained by the Hindoos for their monkeys. 



THE APE. 



391 



In many places where grain and fruit crops are cultivated, the 
monkeys get rather more tlian their share, plundering without 
scruple, and finding no hindrance from the rightful owners, who 
dare not drive them away, lest they should injure any of these 
sacred beings. However, being of the opinion that no evil 
will follow a foreigner's action, they are only too glad to avail 
themselves of the assistance of Europeans, who have no scruples 
on the subject. Still, although they are pleased to see the 



^^^;:^^ 



^' 




TROUBLESOME NEIGHBORS. 



monkeys driven off, and their crops saved, they would rather 
lose all their harvest than allow a single monkey to be killed, 
and in the earlier years of the Indian colony, several riots took 
place between the natives and the English, because the latter 
had killed a monkey through ignorance of the reverence in 
which it was held. 

Another monkey which may probably have been brought to 
Palestine from India is the Hoonuman, Entellus, or Makur, 



392 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



which is more reverenced by the Hindoos than any other 
species. Its scientific title is Presbytes entellus. In some parts of 
India it is worshipped as a form of divinity, and in all it is 
reverenced and protected to such an extent that it becomes a 




MOXKEYS EN-TEKrSG A PLA>-TAXIOX. 



positive nuisance to Europeans who are not influenced by the 
same superstitious ideas as those which are so prevalent in 
India. Being a very common species, it could easily be 
captured, especially if, as is likely to be the case, it was fearless 
of man through long immunity from harm. The sailors who 
manned Solomon's na^^ would not trouble themselves about the 
sacred character of the monkeys, but wouM take them without 
the least scruple wherever they could be found 

The Hoonuman would also be valued by them on account of 
its docility when taken young, and the amusing tricks which it 
is fond of displajdng in captivity as well as in a state of 
freedom. Moreover, it is rather a pretty creature, the general 
colour being yellowish, and tiie face black, 



TJiF An:. 



393 



Perfectly aware of tlie impunity with which they are per- 
mitted to act, these monkeys prefer human habitations to the 
forests which form the natural home of their race, and crowd 
into the villages and temples, the latter being always swarming 
with the long-tailed host. As is the case with the Ehesus, the 
Hoonuman monkeys are much too fond of helping themselves 




SLOTHFUI. MONKEYS. 

from the shops and stalls, and if they can find a convenient roof, 
will sit there and watch for the arrival of the most dainty 
fruits. 

However, the natives, superstitious as they are, and unwilling 
to inflict personal injury on a monkey, have no scruple in 
making arrangements by which a monkey that trespasses on 
forbidden spots will inflict injury on itself. They may not shoot 
or wound in any way the monkeys which cluster on their roofs, 

17* 



394 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



and the animals are so perfectly aware of the fact, that they 
refuse to be driven away by shouts and menacing gestures. 
But, they contrive to make the roofs so uncomfortable by cover- 
ing them with thorns, that the monkeys are obliged to quit their 
points of vantage, and to choose some spot where they can sit 
down without fear of hurting themselves. 




A PRIVILEGED RACE. 



That the Hindoos should pay homage almost divine to a 
monkey, does seem equally absurd and contemptible. But, 
strange as this superstition may be, and the more strange because 
the intellectual powers of the educated Hindoos are peculiarly 
subtle and penetrating, it was shared by a greater, a mightier, 
and a still more intellectual race, now extinct as a nation. The 
ancient Egyptians worshipped the baboon, and ranked it among 
the most potent of their deities ; and it can but strike us with 
wonder when we reflect that a people who could erect buildings 
perfectly unique in the history of the world, who held the fore- 



THE APE. 396 

most place in civilizatiou, who perfected arts which we, at a 
distance of three thousand years, have only just learned, should 
pay divine honours to monkeys, bulls, and snakes. Such, 
however, was the case ; and we find that the modern Hindoo 
shows as great reverence for the identical animals as did the 
^gyP^i^^i when Pharaoh was king, and Joseph his prime 
minister. 

It is said by some, that neither the Egyptian of the ancient 
times, nor the Hindoo of the present day, actually worshipped 
these creatures, but that they reverenced them as external signs 
of some attribute of God. Precisely the same remarks have 
been made as to the worship of idols, and it is likely enough 
that the higlily educated among the worshippers did look upon a 
serpent merely as an emblem of divine wisdom, a bull as an 
image of divine strength, and a monkey as an external memorial 
of the promised incarnation of divinity. So with idols, which to 
the man of educated and enlarged mind were nothing but visible 
symbols employed for the purpose of directing the mind in 
worship, liut, though this was the case with the educated and 
intellectual, the ignorant and uncultivated, who compose the 
great mass of a nation, did undoubtedly believe that both the 
living animal and the lifeless idol were themselves divine, and 
did worship them accordingly. 

There is one species of monkey, which is extremely likely 
to have been brought to Palestine, and used for the adorn- 
ment of a luxurious monarch's palace. This is the Wanderoo, 
or Nil-Bhundek (Silenus veter). The Wanderoo, or Ouanderoo, 
as the name is sometimes spelled, is a very conspicuous animal, 
on account of the curious mane that covers its neck and head, 
and the peculiarly formed tail, which is rather long and tufted, 
like that of a baboon, and has caused it to be ranked among 
those animals by several writers, under the name of the Lion- 
tailed Baboon. That part of the hairy mass which rolls over the 
head is nearly black, but as it descends over the shoulders, it 
assumes a greyer tinge, and in some specimens is nearly white. 
As is the case with many animals, the mane is not noticeable 
in the young specimens, but increases in size with age, only reach- 
ing its full dimensions when the animal has attained adult age. 
Only in the oldest specimens is the full, white, venerable, wig-like 
mane to be seen in perfection. 



396 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



In captivity, the general demeanour of this monkey corre- 
sponds with its grave and dignified aspect. It seems to be 
more sedate than the ordinary monkeys, to judge from the 
specimens which have lived in the Zoological Gardens, and sits 
peering with its shiny brown eyes out of the enormous mane, 
with as much gravity as if it were really a judge deciding an im- 
portant case in law. Not that it wiU not condescend to the little 
tricks and playful sallies for which the monkeys are so cele- 
brated ; but it soon loses the vivacity of youth, and when full- 




THE WAXDEROO. 



grown, presents as great a contrast to its former vivacity, as does 
a staid full-grown cat sitting by the fire, to the restless, lively, 
playful kitten of three months old. During its growth, it can be 
taught to go through several amusing performauces, but it has 
little of the quick, mercurial manner, which is generally found 
among the monkey tribe. 

The docility of the Wanderoo often vanishes together with its 
youth. The same animal may be gentle, tractable, and teachable 
when young, and yet, when a few years have passed over its 
head and whitened its mane, may be totally obstinate and dull. 




THE ENEMY DISCOVERED. 



398 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The natives of the country in which the Wanderoo lives, 
attribute to it the wisdom which its venerable aspect seems to 
imply, much as the ancient Athenians venerated the owl as 
the bird of wisdom, and the chosen companion of the learned 
Minerva. In many places, the Wanderoo is thought to be a sort 
of king among monkeys, and to enjoy the same supremacy 
over its maneless kinsfolk, that the king- vulture maintains over 
the other vultures which are destitute of the brilliant crest that 
marks its rank. 

I am induced to believe that the Wanderoo must have been 
one of the monkeys which were brought to Solomon, for two 
reasons. 

In the first place, it is a native both of India and Ceylon, and 
therefore might have formed an article of merchandise, together 
with the peacock, gold, and ivory. And if, as is extremely pro- 
bable, the Tharshish of the Scripture is identical with Ceylon, it 
is almost certain that the Yv^anderoo would have been brought to 
Solomon, in order to increase the glories of his palace. Sir 
Emerson Tennant points out very forcibly, that in the Tamil 
language, the words for apes, ivory, and peacocks, are identical 
with the Hebrew names for the same objects, and thus gives a 
very strong reason for supposing that Ceylon was the country 
from which Solomon's iieet drew its supplies. 

Another reason for conjecturing that the Wanderoo would 
have been one of the animals sent to grace the palace of 
Solomon is this. In the days when that mighty sovereign lived, 
as indeed has been the case in all partially civilized countries, the 
kings and rulers have felt a pride in collecting together the 
rarest objects which they could purchase, giving the preference to 
those which were in any w^ay conspicuous, whether for intrinsic 
value, for size, for beauty, or for ugliness. Thus, giants, dwarfs, 
and deformed persons of either sex, and even idiots, were seen as 
regular attendants at royal courts, a custom which extended 
even into the modern history of England, the " Fool " being an 
indispensable appendage to the train of every person of rank. 
Animals from foreign lands were also prized, and value was set 
upon them, not only for their variety, but for any external 
characteristic which would make them especially conspicuous. 

Ordinary sovereigns would make collections of such objects, 
simply because they were rare, and in accordance with the 




BONNET MONKf:YS. 



400 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

general custom ; and in importing the " apes " and peacocks 
together with the gold and ivory, Solomon but followed the 
usual custom. He, however, on whom the gift of wisdom had 
been especially bestowed, would have another motive besides 
ostentation or curiosity. He was learned in the study of that 
science which we now^ call Natural History. It is, therefore, 
extremely probable, that he would not neglect any opportunities 
of procuring animals from distant lands, in order that he might 
study the products of countries which he had not personally 
visited, and it is not likely that so conspicuous an animal as the 
Wanderoo would have escaped the notice of those who provided 
the cargo for which so wealthy a king could pay, and for which 
they would demand a price proportionate to its variety. 

There is perhaps no monkey which is so conspicuous among 
its kin as the Wanderoo, and certainly no monkey or ape 
inhabiting those parts of the world to which the fleet of Solomon 
would have access. Its staid, sedate manners, its black body, 
lion-like tail, and huge white-edged mane, would distinguish it 
so boldly from its kinsfolk, that the sailors would use all their 
efforts to capture an animal for which they would be likely to 
obtain a high price. 

The peculiar and unique character of Solomon affords good 
reason for conjecture that, not only were several species of the 
monkey tribe included under the general word Kophim, but that 
the number of species must have been very great. He wrote 
largely of the various productions of the earth, and, to judge 
him by ourselves, it is certain that with such magnificent means 
at His command, he would have ransacked every country that 
his ships could visit, for the purpose of collecting materials for 
his works. It is therefore almost certain that under the word 
Kophim may be included all the most plentiful species of 
monkey which inhabit the countries to which his fleet had 
access, and that in his palace were collected together specimens 
of each monkey which lias here been mentioned, besides many 
others of which no special notice need be taken, such as the 
Bonnet Monkeys, and other Macaques. 




THE BAT. 

The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence — Meaning of the Hebrew name — The 
prohibition against eating Bats — The edible species, their food and mode of 
life — The noisome character of the Bat, and the nature of its dwelling-place — 
Its hatred of light — Mr, Tristram's discoveries — Bats found in the quarries from 
which the stone of the Temple was hewn — Edible Bats in a cave near the centre 
of Palestine — Another species of long-tailed Bat captured in the rock caves 
where hermits had been buried — Other species which probably inhabit Palestine. 



Among the animals that are forbidden to be eaten by the 
Israelites we find the Bat prominently mentioned, and in one or 
two parts of Scripture the same creature is alluded to with 
evident abhorrence. In Isaiah ii. 20, for example, it is pro- 
phesied that when the day of the Lord comes, the worshippers 
of idols will try to hide themselves from the presence of the 
T^rd, and will cast their false gods to the bats and the moles, 
both animals being evidently used as emblems of darkness and 
ignorance, and associated together for a reason which will be 
given when treating of the mole. The Hebrew name of the 
Bat is expressive of its nocturnal habits, and literally signifies 
some being that flies by night, and it is a notable fact that the 

401 



402 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Greek and Latin names for the bat have also a similar deri- 
vation. 

In Lev. xi. 20, the words, " All fov/ls that creep, going upon 
all four, shall be an abomination unto you," are evidently in- 
tended to apply to the bat, which, as is now well known, is not 
a bird with wings, but a mammal with very long toes, and a 
well developed membrane between them. Like other mammals, 
the Bat crawls, or walks, on all four legs, though the movement 
is but a clumsy one, and greatly different from the graceful ease 
with which the creature urges its course through the evening air 
in search of food. 

Perhaps the prohibition to eat so unsightly an animal may 
seem almost needless ; but it must be remembered that in 
several parts of the earth, certain species of Bat are used as 
food. These are chiefly the large species, that are called 
Kalongs, and which feed almost entirely on fruit, thus being to 
their insectivorous relatives what the fruit-loving bear is among 
the larger carnivora. These edible Bats have other habits not 
shared by the generality of their kin. Some of the species do 
not retire to caves and hollow trees for shelter during their hours 
of sleep, but suspend themselves by their hind legs from the 
topmost branches of the trees whose fruit affords them nourish- 
ment. In this position they have a most singular aspect, looking 
much as if they themselves were large bunches of fruit hanging 
from the boughs. Thus, they are cleanly animals, and are as 
little repulsive as .bats can be expected to be. 

But the ordinary bats, such as are signified by the "night- 
fliers " of the Scriptures, are, when in a state of nature, exceed- 
ingly unpleasant creatures. Almost all animals are infested with 
parasitic insects, but the Bat absolutely swarms with them, so 
that it is impossible to handle a Bat recently dead without find- 
ing some of them on the hands. Also, the bats are in the habit 
of resorting to caverns, clefts in the rocks, deserted ruins, and 
similar dark places, wherein they pass the hours of daylight, and 
will frequent the same spots for a long series of years. In con- 
sequence of this habit, the spots which they select for their 
resting place become inconceivably noisome, and can scarcely be 
entered by human beings, so powerful is the odour with which 
they are imbued. 

Sometimes, when travellers have been exploring the chambers 



THE BAT. 



403 



of ruined buildings, or have endeavoured to penetrate into the 
recesses of rocky caves, tliey liave been repelled by the bats 
which had taken up their habitation therein. No sooner does 
the light of the torch or lamp shine upon the walls, than the 




BATS' RESTING-l'LACE. 



clusters of bats detach themselves from the spots to which they 
had been clinging, and fly to the light like moths to a candle. 
No torch can witlistand the multitude of wings that come flap- 
ping about it, sounding like the rushing of a strong wind, while 



404 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the bats that do not crowd around the light, dash agaifist the 
explorers, beating their leathery wings against their faces, and 
clinging in numbers to their dress. They would even settle on the 
face unless kept off by the hands, and sometimes they force the in 
truders to beat a retreat. They do not intend to attack, for they 
are quite incapable of doing any real damage ; and, in point of 
fact, they are much more alarmed than those whom they annoy. 
Nocturnal in their habits, they cannot endure the light, which 
completely dazzles them, so that they dash about at random, and 
fly blindly towards the torches in their endeavours to escape. 

If, then, we keep in mind the habits of the bats, we shall 
comprehend that their habitations must be inexpressibly revolt- 
ing to human beings, and shall the better understand the force of 
the prophecy that the idols shall be cast to the bats and the 
moles. 

No particular species of Bat seems to be indicated by the 
Hebrew word Hatalleph, which is evidently used in a compre- 
hensive sense, and signifies all and any species of Bat. Until 
very lately, the exact species of Bats which inhabit Palestine 
were not definitely ascertained, and could only be conjectured. 
But, Mr. Tristram, who travelled in the Holy Land for the ex- 
press purpose of investigating its physical history, has set this 
point at rest, in his invaluable work, " The Land of Israel," to 
which frequent reference will be made in the course of the 
following pages. 

Almost every cavern which he entered was tenanted b}- bats, 
ind he procured several species of these repulsive but interesting 
animals. While exploring the vast quarries in which the stone 
for the Temple was worked beneath the earth, so that no sound 
of tool was heard during the building, numbers of bats were dis- 
turbed by the lights, and fluttered over the heads of the 
exploring party. 

On another occasion, he was exploring a cave near the centre 
of Palestine, when he succeeded in procuring some specimens, 
and therefore in identifying at least one species. " In climbing 
the rocks soon afterwards, to examine a cave, I heard a singular 
whining chatter within, and on creeping into its recesses, a stone 
thrown up roused from their roosting-places a colony of large bats, 
the soft waving flap of whose wings I could hear in the darkness. 
How to obtain one I knew not ; but on vigorously plying my 



THE BAT. 



405 



signal whistle, all the party soon gathered to my help. B. sug- 
gested smoking them, so a fire of brushwood was kindled, and 
soon two or three rushed out. Two fell to our shot, and I was 
delighted to find myself the possessor of a couple of large fox- 
headed bats of the genus Pteropus (Xantharpya eegyptiaca), and 




.liKAT FOX-HEADED BAT, OR FLYING FOX. 



extending twenty and a half inches from wing to wing. As none 
of the bats of Palestine are yet known, this was a great prize, 
and another instance of the extension westward of the Indian 
fauna." These Bats belong to the fruit-eating tribe, and are 
closely allied to the Flying Foxes of Java, Australia, and 
Southern Africa. Therefore, this would be one of the species 
commonly used for food, and hence the necessity for the prohibi- 
tion. The present species extends over the greater part of 
Northern Africa and into parts of Asia. 



406 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The same traveller subsequently discovered several more 
species of bats. On one occasion, he was exploring some caves, 
near the site of the ancient Jericho. On the eastern face of the 
cliffs are a number of caves, arranged in regular tiers, and 
originally approached by steps cut out of the face of the rock. 
These staircases are, however, washed away by time and the 
rains, and in consequence tlie upper tiers were almost inacces- 



CAVE NEAR THE SITE OF ANCIPNT JLI I 110 

sible. In some of these caves the walls were covered with^ 
brilliant, but mutilated frescoes ; and in others, hermits had 
lived and died and been buried. Mr. Tristram and his com- 
panions had penetrated to the second tier, and there made a 
curious discovery. 

" In the roof of this was a small hole, athwart which lay a 
stick. After many efforts, we got a string across it, and so 



THE BAT. 



407 



hauled up a rope, by which, finding the stick strong enough, we 
climbed, and with a short exercise of the chimney-sweeper's art, 
we found ourselves in a third tier of cells, similar to the lower 
ones, and covered with the undisturbed dust of ages. Behind the 
chapel was a dark cave, with an entrance eighteen inches higli. 
Having lighted our lantern, we crept in on our faces, and found 
the place full of human bones and skulls ; with dust several inches 
deep. We were in an ancient burying-place of the Anchorites, 
or hermits of the country, whose custom it was to retire to such 
desert and solitary places. 

" Their bones lay in undisturbed order, probably as the corpses 
had been stretched after death. 

" After capturing two or three long-tailed bats, of a species new 
to us, which were the only living occupants of the cave, we crept 
out, with a feeling of religious awe, from this strange, sepulchral 
cavern." 

Besides the species of bats that have been described, it is prob- 
able that representatives of several more families of bats inhabit 
Palestine. 





LEOPARDS. 




BIRDS 



,>avu,^';4lS»L'StfW^WWWIl'^N'3 



j^a^m^^^ 



i8 




Vwiii"*' 




THE 



LAMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 



DiflBculty of identifying the various birds mentioned in Scripture — The vultures 
of Palestine — The Lammergeier, or Ossifrage of Scripture — Appearance of the 
Lammergeier — Its flight and mode of feeding — Nest of the Lammergeier. 

It has already been mentioned that even the best Biblical 
scholars have found very great difficulties in identifying several 

411 



412 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

of the animals which are named in Scripture. This difficulty is 
greatly increased when we come to the Bikds, and in many in- 
stances it is absolutely impossible to .identify the Hebrew word 
with any precise species. In all probability, however, the 
nomenclature of the birds is a very loose one, several species 
being classed under the same title. 




THE LAMMEKGEIER. 



Keeping this difficulty in mind, I shall mention all the species 
which are likely to have been classed under a single title, giving 
a general description of the whole, and a detailed account of the 
particular species which seems to answer most closely to the 
Hebrew word. 

Following the arrangement which has been employed in this 
work, I shall begin with the bird which has been placed by 



THE LAMMERGEIB. 413 

zoologists at the head of its class, namely, the Lammergeier, the 
bird which may be safely identified with the Ossifrage of 
Scripture. The Hebrew word is "Peres," a term which only 
occurs twice when signifying a species of bird ; namely, in Lev. 
xi. 13, and the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. 12. The first of 
these passages runs as follows : " These ye shall have in abomi- 
Dation among the fowls ; they shall not be eaten, they are an 
abomination : the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray." The 
corresponding passage in Deuteronomy has precisely the same 
signification, though rather differently worded : "These are they 
of which ye shall not eat : the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the 
ospray." 

The word peres signifies a breaker ; and the Latin term Ossi- 
fraga, or Bone-breaker, is a very good translation of the word. 
How it applies to the Lammergeier we shall presently see. 

The Lammergeier belongs to the vultures, but has much more 
the appearance of au eagle than a vulture, the neck being clothed 
with feathers, instead of being naked or only covered with 
down. It may at once be known by the tuft of long, hair-like 
feathers which depends from the beak, and which has gained for 
the bird the title of Bearded Vulture. The colour of the 
plumage is a mixture of different browns and greys, tawny 
below and beautifully pencilled above, a line of pure white run- 
ning along the middle of each feather. When young it is nearly 
black, and indeed has been treated as a separate species under 
the name of Black Vulture. 

It is one of the largest of the flying birds, its length often 
exceeding four feet, and the expanse of its wings being rather 
more than ten feet. In consequence of this great spread of 
wing, it looks when flying like a much larger bird than it really 
is, and its size has often been variously misstated. Its flight, as 
may be imagined from the possession of such wings, is equally 
grand and graceful, and it sweeps through the air with great 
force, apparently unaccompanied by effort. 

The Lammergeier extends through a very large range of 
country, and is found throughout many parts of Europe and 
Asia. It is spread over the Holy Land, never congregating 
in numbers, like ordinarj^ vultures, but living in pairs, and 
scarcely any ravine being uninhabited by at least one pair of 
Lammergeiers, 



414 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The food of the Lammergeier is, like that of other \'nltures, 
the flesh of dead animals, though it does not feed quite in the 
same manner that they do. When the ordinary vultures have 
found a carcase they tear it to pieces, and soon remove all the 
flesh. This having been done, the Lammergeier comes to the 
half-picked bones, eats the remaining flesh from them, and 
finishes by breaking them and eating the marrow. That a bird 
should be able to break a bone as thick and hard a« the thigh- 
bone of a horse or ox seems rather problematical, but the bird 
achieves the feat in a simple and effectual manner. 

Seizing the bone in its claws, it rises to an immense height in 
the air, and then, balancing itself over some piece of rock, it lets 
the bone fall, and sweeps after it with scarce less rapidity than 
the bone falls. Should the bone be broken by the fall, the bird 
picks the marrow out of the fragments ; and should it have 
escaped fracture by reason of falling on a soft piece of ground 
instead of a hard rock, the bird picks it up, and renews the pro- 
cess until it has attained its object. It will be seen, therefore, 
that the name of Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker, may very properly 
be given to this bird. 

Not only does it extract the marrow from bones in this 
peculiar manner, but it procures other articles of food by em- 
ploying precisely the same sy^^tem. If it sees a tortoise, many 
of which reptiles are found in the countries which it inhabits, it 
does not waste time and trouble by trying to peck the shell 
open, but carries its prey high in the air, drops it on the ground, 
and so breaks its shell to pieces. Tortoises are often very hard- 
shelled creatures, and the Lammergeier has been observed to 
raise one of them and drop it six or seven times before the 
stubborn armour would yield. Snakes, too, are killed in a 
similar manner, being seized by the neck, and then dropped from 
a height upon rocks or hard ground. The reader may perhaps 
be aware that the Hooded Crow of England breaks bones and 
the shells of bivalve molluscs in a similar manner. 

Mr. Tristram suggests, with much probability, that the 
" eagle " which mistook the bald head of the poet iEschylus for 
a white stone, and killed him by dropping a tortoise upon it, was 
in all likelihood a Lammergeier, the bird being a denizen of the 
same country, and the act of tortoise- dropping being its usual 
mode of killing those reptiles. 




A SUCCESSFUL DEFENCE. 



416 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

We now see why the Lammergeier is furnished with such 
enormous wings, and so great a power of flight, these attributes 
being needful in order to enable it to lift its prey to a sufficient 
height. The air, as we all know, becomes more and more 
attenuated in exact proportion to the height above the earth ; and 
did not the bird possess such great powers of flight, it would 
not be able to carry a heavy tortoise into the thinner strata of 
air which are found at the height to which it soars. 

The instinct of killing its prey by a fall is employed against 
other animals besides snakes and tortoises, though exerted in a 
somewhat different manner. The bird, as has already been 
mentioned, lives among mountain ranges, and it may be seen 
floating about them for hours together, watching each inch of 
ground in search of prey. Should it see a goat or other inhabi- 
tant of the rocks standing near a precipice, the Lammergeier 
sweeps rapidly upon it, and with a blow of its wing knocks 
the animal off the rock into the valley beneath, where it lies 
helplessly maimed, even if not killed by the fall. 

Even hares and lambs are killed in this manner, and it is from 
the havoc which the Lammergeier makes among the sheep that 
it has obtained the name of Lammergeier, or Lamb-Vulture. So 
swift and noiseless is the rush of the bird, that an animal which 
has once been marked by its blood-red eye seldom escapes from 
the swoop ; and even the Alpine hunters, who spend their lives 
in pursuit of the chamois, have occasionally been put in great 
jeopardy by the sudden attack of a Lammergeier, the bird having 
mistaken their crouching forms for the chamois, and only turned 
aside at the last moment. 

The reason for employing so remarkable a mode of attack is to 
be found in the structure of the feet, which, although belonging 
to so large and powerful a bird, are comparatively feeble, and are 
unable, like those of the eagle, to grasp the living animal in a 
deadly hold, and to drive the sharp talons into its vitals. The}- 
are not well adapted for holding prey, the talons not possessing 
the hook-like form or the sharp points which characterise those 
of the eagle. The feet, by the way, are feathered down to the 
toes. The beak, too, is weak when compared with the rest 
of the body, and could not perform its work were not the 
object which it tears previously shattered by the fall from a 
height. 




1 8* 



STRUCK FROM A DIZZY HEIGUT. 



418 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 






The nest of the Lammergeier is made of sticks and sods, and 
is of enormous dimensions. It is almost always placed upon a 
lofty cliff, and contains about a wagon-load or so of sticks 
rudely interwoven, and supporting a nearly equal amount of sods 
and moss. 

An allied species lives in Northern Africa, where it is called 
by a name which signifies Father Longbeard, in allusion to the 
beard-like tufts of the bill 




THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE. 419 



THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE. 



The Racham or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture — Its appearance 
on the Egyptian monuments — The shape, size, and colour of the bird — Its value 
as a scavenger, ajid its general habits — The Egyptian Vultures and the griffons 
— Its fondness for the society of man — Nest of the Egyptian Vulture. 



In the same list of uuclean birds which has already been given, 
we find the name of a bird which we can identify without much 
difficulty, although there has been some little controversy about 
it. This is the so-called Gier-Eagle, which ^s named with the 
cormorant and the pelican as one of the birds which the Jews 
are forbidden to eat. The word which is ti anslated as Gier-Eagle 
is RTicham, a name which is almost identical with the Arabic 
name of the Egyptian Vulture, sometimes called Pharaoh's 
Chicken, because it is so often sculptured on the ancient monu- 
ments of Egypt. It is called by the Turks by a name which 
signifies White Father, in allusion to the colour of its plumage. 

This bird is not a very large one, being about equal to a raven 
in size, though its enormously long wings give it an appearance 
of much greater size. Its colour is white, with the exception of 
the quill feathers of the wings, which are dark-brown. The bill 
and the naked face and legs are bright ochreous yellow. It does 
not attain this white plumage until its third year, its colour 
before reaching adult age being brown, with a grey neck and 
dull yellow^ legs and face. 

The Egyptian Vulture, although not large, is a really hand- 
some bird, the bold contrast of pure white and dark brown 
being very conspicuous when it is on the wing. In this plumage 
it has never been seen in England, but one or two examples are 
known of the Egyptian Vulture being killed in England while 
still in its dark-brown clothing. 

It inhabits a very wide range of country, being found 
tlirougliout all the warmer parts of the Old World. Although 



420 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



it is tolerably plentiful, it is never seen in great numbers, as is 
the case with several of the vultures, but is always to be found 
in pairs, the male and female never separating, and invariably 
being seen close together. In fact, in places where it is common 
it is hardly possible to travel more than a mile or two without 
seeing a pair of Egyptian Vultures, Should more than two of 
these birds be seen together, the spectator may be sure that they 




EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE. 



have congregated over some food. It has been well suggested 
that its Hebrew name of Rach^m, or Love, has been given to it 
in consequence of this constant association of the male and 
female. 

The Egyptian Vulture is one of the best of scavengers, not 
only devouring the carcases of dead animals, .but feeding on 
every kind of offal or garbage. Indeed, its teeth and claws are 



THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE. 421 

much tco feeble to enable it to cope with the true vniltures in 
tearing up a large carcase, and in consequence it never really 
associates with them, although it may be seen hovering near 
them, and it never ventures to feed in their company, keeping 
at a respectful distance while they feed, and, when they retire, 
humbly making a meal on the scraps which they have left. 

Mr. Tristram naiTates an amusing instance of this trait of 
character. " On a subsequent occasion, on the north side of 
Hermon, we observed the griffons teaching a lesson of patience 
to the inferior scavengers. A long row of Egyptian vultures 
were sitting on some rocks, so intently watching a spot in a 
corn-field that they took no notice of our approach. Creeping 
cautiously near, we watched a score of giiffons busily engaged 
in turning over a dead horse, one side of which they had already 
reduced to a skeleton. 

" Their united efforts had just effected this, when we showed 
ourselves, and they quickly retired. The inferior birds, who 
dreaded us much less than them, at once darted to the repast, 
and, utterly regardless of our presence within ten yards of them, 
began to gorge. We had hardly retired two hundred yards, when 
the griffons came down with a swoop, and the Egyptian vultures 
and a pair or two of eagles hurriedly resumed their post of 
observation ; while some black kites remained, and contrived by 
their superior agility to filch a few morsels from their lordly 
superiors." 

So useful is this bird as a scavenger, that it is protected in all 
parts of the East by the most stringent laws, so that a naturalist 
who wishes for specimens has some difficulty in procuring the 
bird, or even its egg. It wanders about the streets of the villages, 
and may generally be found investigating the heaps of refuse 
which are left to be cleared away by the animals and birds 
which constitute the scavengers of the East. 

It not only eats dead animal substances, but kills and devours 
great quantities of rats, mice, lizards, and other pests that swarm 
in hot countries. So tame is it, that it may even be observed, 
like the gull and the rook of our own country, following the 
ploughman as he turns up the ground, and examining the furrow 
for the purpose of picking up the worms, grubs, and similar 
creatures that are disturbed by the share. 

Being thus protected and encouraged by man, there is good 



422 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

reason why it should have learned in course of time to fear him 
far less than its own kind. Indeed, it is so utterly fearless with 
regard to human beings, that it habitually follows the caravans 
as they pass fi'om one town to another, for the sake of feeding 
on the refuse food and other ofifal which is thrown aside on 
the road. 

Two articles of diet which certainlj' do not seem to fall within 
the ordinary range of vulture's food are said to be consumed 
by this bird. The first is the egg of the ostrich, the shell 
of which is too hard to be broken by the feeble beak of the 
Egyptian Vulture. The bird cannot, like the lammergeier, 
carry the egg into the air and drop it on the ground, because its 
feet are not large enough to grasp it, and only slip off its round 
and polished surface. Therefore, instead of raising the egg into 
the air and dropping it upon a stone, it carries a stone into the 
air and drops it upon the egg. So at least say the natives of the 
country which it inhabits, and there is no reason why we should 
doubt the truth of the statement. 

The other article of food is a sort of melon, very full of juice. 
This melon is called " nara," and is devoured by various creatures, 
such as lions, leopards, mice, ostriches, &c. and seems to serve 
them instead of drink. 

The nest of the Egj^ptian Vulture is made in some rocky 
ledge, and the bird does not trouble itself about selecting a spot 
inaccessible to man, knowing well that it will not be disturbed. 
The nest is, like that of other \Tiltures, a large and rude mass 
of sticks, sods, bones, and similar materials, to which are added 
any bits of rag, rope, skin, and other village refuse which it can 
pick up as it traverses the streets. There are two, and occa- 
sionally three, eggs, rather variously mottled with red In 
its breeding, as in its general Hfe, it is not a gregarious bird, 
never breeding in colonies, and, indeed, very seldom choosing 
a spot for its nest near one which has already been selected 
by another pair. 

The illustration on page 420 represents part of the nest oi 
the Egj^tian Vulture, in which the curious mixture of bones 
and sticks is well shown. The parent birds are drawn in 
two characteristic attitudes taken from life, and well exhibit 
the feeble beak, the pecuHar and intelligent, almost cunning 
expression of the head, and the ruff of feathers which surrounds 



THE GRIFFIN VULTURE. 423 

the upper part of the neck. In the distance another bird is drawn 
as it appears on the wing, in order to show the contrast between 
the white plumage and the dark quill feathers of the wings, the 
bird presenting a general appearance very similar to that of the 
common sea-gull. 



THE 



GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE. 



The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of Scripture — Geographical range of 
the Griffon — Its mode of flight and sociable habits — The featherless head and 
neck of the bird — The Vulture used as an image of i^trength, swiftness, and 
rapacity — Its powers of sight — How Vultures assemble round a carcase — Nest- 
ing-places of the Griffon — Mr. Tristram's description of the Griffon — Rock- 
caves of the Wady HamS,m — Care of the young, and teaching them to fly — 
Strength of the Griffon. 



The Griffon Vulture is found throughout a large portion of 
the Old World, inhabiting nearly all the warmer portions of this 
hemisphere. The colour of the adult bird is a sort of yellowish 
brown, diversified by the black quill feathers and the ruff of 
white down that surrounds the neck. The head and neck are 
without feathers, but are sparingly covered with very short do^\n 
of a similar character to that of the ruff. 

It is really a large bird, being little short of five feet in total 
length, and the expanse of wing measuring about eight feet. 

The Griffon Vulture is very plentiful in Palestine, and, unlike 
the lesser though equally useful Egyptian Vulture, congregates 
together in great numbers, feeding, flying, and herding in 
company. Large flocks of them may be seen daily, soarinir high 
in the air, and sweeping their graceful way in the grand curves 
which distinguish the flight of the large bii'ds of prey. They 



424 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

are best to be seen in the early morning, being in the habit of 
quitting their rocky homes at daybreak, and indulging in a flight 
for two or three hours, after which they mostly return to the 
rocks, and wait until evening, when they take another short 
flight before retiring to rest. 

Allusion is made in the Scriptures to the gregarious habits 
of the Vultures: "Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the 
eagles be gathered together " (Matt. xxiv. 28). That the Vulture, 
and not the eagle, is here signified, is evident from the fact that 
the eagles do not congregate like the Vultures, never being seen 
in greater numbers than two or three together, while the Vultures 
assemble in hundreds. 

There is also a curious passage in the Book of Proverbs, chap. 
XXX. ver. 17, which alludes to the carnivorous nature of the bird : 
" The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his 
mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young 
eagles shall eat it." 

AUusion is made in several passages to the swiftness of the 
Vulture, as well as its voracity. See, for example, a portion of 
David's lamentation over the bodies of Saul and Jonathan, who, 
according to the poet's metaphor, " were lovely and pleasant i-ii 
their lives, and in their death they were not divided ; they were 
swifter than eagles, they w^ere stronger than lions." 

The '' bitter " people — namely, the Chaldeans — are again men- 
tioned in a very similar manner by the prophet Jeremiah : *' Oui 
persecutors are swifter than the eagles of the heavens; they 
pursued us upon the mountains, they laid wait for us in the 
v/ilderness " (Lam. iv. 19). 

There is something peculiarly appropriate in employing the 
Vulture as an image of strength and swiftness when applied to 
vv^arriors, the bird being an invariable attendant on the battle, 
and flying to the field of death with marvellous swiftness. All 
who had ever witnessed a battle were familiar with the presence 
of the Vulture — the scene of carnage, and the image which is 
employed, would be one which commended itself at once to 
those for whom it was intended. And, as the earlier history of 
the Jewish nation is essentially of a warlike character, we 
cannot wonder that so powerful and familiar an image should 
have been repeatedly introduced into the sacred writings. 

Wonderfiil powers of sight are possessed by this bird. Its eyes 




VULTURES. 



426 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

are able to assume either a telescopic or a microscopic character, 
by means of a complex and marvellous structure, which can 
alter the whole shape of the organ at the will of the bird. 

Not only can the eye be thus altered, but it changes instan- 
taneously, so as to accommodate itself to the task which it is to 
perform. A Vulture, for example, sees from a vast height the 
body of a dead animal, and instantly swoops down upon it like 
an arrow from a bow. In order to enable the bird to see so 
distant an object, the eye has been exercising its telescopic 
powers, and yet, in a second or two, when the Vulture is close 
to its prey, the whole form of the eye must be changed, or 
the bird would mistake its distance, and dash itself to pieces 
on the ground. 

By means of its powerful eyes, the Vulture can see to an 
enormous distance, and with great clearness, but neither so far 
nor so clearly as is popularly supposed. It is true that, as soon 
as a carcase is discovered, it will be covered with Vultures, who 
arrive from every side, looking at first like tiny specks in the air, 
scarcely perceptible even to practised eyes, and all directing 
their flight to the same point. " Where the carcase is, there 
will the vultures be gathered together." But, although they all 
fly towards the same spot, it does not follow that they have all 
seen the same object. The fact is, they see and understand each 
others movements. 

A single Vulture, for example, sees a dead or dying sheep, and 
swoops down upon it. The other Vultures which are flying 
about in search of food, and from which the animal in question 
may be concealed, know perfectly well that a Vulture soars high 
in the air when searching for food, and only darts to the earth 
when it has found a suitable prey. They immediately follow its 
example, and in their turn are followed by other Vultures, which 
can see their fellows from a distance, and know perfectly well 
why they are all converging to one spot. 

In this way all the Vultures of a neighbourhood wiU under- 
stand, by a very intelligible telegraph, that a dead body of some 
animal has been found, and, aided by their wonderful powers of 
flight, will assemble over its body in an almost incredibly short 
space of time. 

The resting-place of the Griffon Vulture is always on some 
lofty spot. The Arabian Vulture will build within easy reach. 



THE G BIFFIN VULTURE. 427 

the eagle, prefers lofty situations, but nothing but the highest 
and most inaccessible spots will satisfy the Vulture. To reach 
the nest of this bird is therefore a very difficult task, only to 
be attempted by experienced and intrepid cragsmen ; and, in 
consequence, both the eggs and young of the Griffon Vulture 
cannot be obtained except for a very high price. The birds are 
fond of building in the rock-caves which are found in so many 
parts of Palestine, and in some places they fill these places as 
thickly as rooks fill a rookery. 

In Mr. Tristram's "Land of Israel," there is a very graphic 
description of the Griffon's nests, and of the difficulty expcr>- 
enced in reaching them. " A narrow gorge, with limestone cliffs 
from five hundred to six hundred feet high, into which the sun 
never penetrates, walls the rapid brook on each side so closely 
that we often had to ride in the bed of the stream. The cliffs 
are perforated with caves at all heights, wholly inaccessible to 
man, the secure resting-place of hundreds of noble griffons, some 
lammergeiers, lanner falcons, and several species of eagle. . . . 
One day in the ravine well repaid us, though so temfic were 
the precipices, that it was quite impossible to reach any of the 
nests with which it swarmed. 

" We were more successful in the Wady Ham^m, the south- 
west end of the plain, the entrance from Hattin and the Buttauf, 
where we spent three days in exploration. The cliffs, though 
reaching the height of fifteen hundred feet, rise like terraces, 
with enormous masses of debris, and the wood is half a mile 
wide. By the aid of Giacomo, who proved himself an expert 
rope-climber, we reaped a good harvest of griffons' eggs, some 
of the party being let down by ropes, while those above were 
guided in working them by signals from others below in the 
valley. It required the aid of a party of a dozen to capture 
these nests. The idea of scaling the cliff with ropes was quite 
new to some Arabs who were herding cattle above, and who 
could not, excepting one little girl, be induced to render any 
assistance. She proved herself most sensible and efticient in 
telegraphing. 

"While capturing the griffons' nests, w^e were re-emicting a 
celebrated siege in Jewish history. Close to us, at the head of 
the cliffs which form the limits of the celebrated Plain of 
Hattin, were the ruins of Irbid, the ancient Arbela, marked 



428 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

principally by the remains of a synagogue, of which some 
marble shafts and fragments of entablature, like those of Tell 
H^m, are still to be seen, and were afterwards visited by us. 

" Hosea mentions the place apparently as a strong fortress : 
* All thy fortresses shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth- 
arbel in the day of battle ' (Hos. x. 14). Perhaps the prophet 
here refers to the refuges in the rocks below. 

" The long series of chambers and galleries in the face of the 
precipice are called by the Arabs, Kulat Ibn Ma^n, and are 
very fully described by Josephus. These cliffs were the homes 
of a set of bandits, who resided here with their families, and for 
years set the power of Herod the Great at defiance. At length, 
when all other attempts at scaling the fortress had failed, he let 
down soldiers at this very spot in boxes, by chains, who attacked 
the robbers with long hooks, and succeeded in rooting them all 
out. 

"The rock galleries, though now oidy tenanted by griffons, 
are very complete and perfect, and beautifully built. Long 
galleries wind backwards and forwards in the cliff side, their 
walls being built with dressed stone, flush with the precipice, 
and often opening into spacious chambers. Tier after tier rise 
one after another with projecting windows, connected by narrow 
staircases, carried sometimes upon arches, and in the upper 
portions rarely broken away. In many of the upper chambers 
to which we were let down, the dust of ages had accumulated, 
undisturbed by any foot save that of the birds of the air ; and 
here we rested during the heat of the day, with the plains and 
lake set as in a frame before us. We obtained a full zoological 
harvest, as in three days we captured fourteeen nests of 
griffons." 

Although these caverns and rocky passages are much more 
accessible than most of the places whereon the Griffons build, 
the natives never venture to enter them, being deterred not so 
much by their height, as by their superstitious fears. The 
Griffons instinctively found out that man never entered these 
caverns, and so took possession of them. 

As the young Griffons are brought up in these lofty and pre- 
cipitous places, it is evident that their first flight must be a 
dangerous experiment, requiring the aid of the parent birds. 
At first the young are rather nervous at the task which lies 



THE QRIFFIN VULTURE. 



429 



before them, and shrink from trusting themselves to the air. 
The parents, however, encourage them to use their wings, take 
short flights in order to set them an example, and, when they at 
last venture from the nest, accompany and encourage them in 
their first journey. 

In flight it is one of the most magnificent birds that can be 
seen, and even when perched it often retains a certain look of 
majesty and grandeur. Sometimes^ however, especially when 
basking in the sun, it assumes a series of attitudes which are 
absolutely grotesque, and convert the noble-looking bird into a 
positively ludicrous object. At one moment it will sit all 
hunched up, its head sunk between its shoulders, and one wing 
trailing behind it as if broken. At another it will bend its legs 
and sit down on the ankle-joint, pushing its feet out in front, and 
supporting itself by the stiff feathers of its tail. Often it will 
Touch nearly flat on the ground, partly spread its wings, and 
allow their tips to rest on the earth, and sometimes it will sup- 
port nearly all the weight of its body on the wings, which rest, 
in a half doubled state, on the ground. I have before me a great 
number of sketches, taken in a single day, of the attitudes 
assumed by one of these birds, every one of which is strikingly 
different from the others, and transforms the whole shape of 
the bird so much that it is scarcely recognisable as the same 
individual. 




^'t^^'' 



^30 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 




THE EAGLE. 

Signification of the word Asniyeh — Tlie Golden Eagle and its habits — The Imperiii] 
Eagle — Its solitary mode of life— The Short -4oed Eagle — Its domestic habit- 
and fondness for the society of man — The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle — Its mod^: 
of catching fish — Its distribution in Palestine. 

As to the Eagle, riglitly so called, there is little doubt that it is 
one of the many birds of prey that seem to have been classed 
under the general title of Asniyeh — tlie word which in the 
Authorized Aversion of the Bible is rendered as Osprey. A 
similar confusion is observable in the modern Arabic, one word, 
ogah, being applied indiscriminately to all the Eagles and the 
large falconidm. 

The chief of the true Eagles, namely, the Golden Eagle 
(Aguila chrysaetos), is one of the inhabitants of Palestine, and 
is seen frequently, though never in great numbers. Indeed, its 
predacious habits unfit it for associating with its kind. Any 
animal which lives chiefly, if not wholly, by the chase, requires 
a large district in order to enable it to live, and thus twenty 
or thirty eagles will be scattered over a district of twice the 
number of miles. Like the lion among the mammalia, the 
Eagle leads an almost solitary life, scarcely ever associating with 
any of its kind except its mate and its young. 



THE EAOLE. 431 

The whole of the Falconidse, as the family to which the Eagles 
belong iti culled, are very destructive birds, gaining their subsif^t- 
ence chiefly by the chase, seldom feeding on carrion except when 
pressed by- hunger, or when the dead animal has only recently 
been killed. 

Herein they form a complete contrast to the vultures, whose 
usual food is putrefying carrion, and fresh meat the exception. 

Destructive though the Eagles may be, they cannot be called 
cruel birds, for, although they deprive many birds and beasts of 
life, they effect their purpose with a single blow, sweeping down 
upon the doomed creature with such lightning velocity, and strik- 
ing it so fiercely with their death-dealing talons, that almost in- 
stantaneous death usually results. 

When the Eagle pounces on a bird, the mere shock caused by 
the stroke of the Eagle's body is almost invariably sufficient to 
cause death, and the bird, even if a large one — such as the swan, 
for example — falls dead upon the earth with scarcely a wound. 

Smaller birds are carried off in the talons of their pursuers, and 
are killed by the grip of their tremendous claws, the Eagle in no 
case making use of its beak for killing its prey. If the great bird 
carries off a lamb or a hare, it grasps the body firmly with its 
claws, and then by a sudden exertion of its wonderful strength 
drives the sharp talons deep into the vitals of its prey, and doct 
not loosen its grasp until the breath of life has fled from its 
victim. 

The structure by means of which the Eagle is enabled to use 
its talons with such terrible effect is equally beautiful and simple, 
deserving special mention. 

Now, many observant persons have been struck with the curious 
power possessed by birds which enables them to hold their position 
upon a branch or perch even while sleeping. In many instances 
the slumbering bird retains its hold of the perch by a single foot, 
the other being drawn up and buried in the feathers. 

As this grasp is clearly an involuntary one, it is evidently inde- 
pendent of the mere will of the bird, and is due to some peculiar 
formation. 

On removing the skin from the leg of any bird, and separating 
the muscles from each other, the structure in question is easily seen. 
The muscles which move the leg and foot, and the tendons, or 
leaders which form the attachment of the muscles to the bones. 



432 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



are so arranged that whenever the bird bends its leg the foot is 
forcibly closed, and is opened again when the leg is straightened. 

A common chicken, as it walks along, closing its toes as it lifts 
its foot from the ground and spreading them as the leg is unbent, 
cannot do otherwise, as the tendons are shortened and lengthened 
as each step is taken. 




It "vvill be seen, therefore, that when a bird falls asleep upon a 
branch the legs are not only bent, but are pressed downwards by 
the weight of the body ; so that the claws hold the perch with a 
firm and involuntary grasp which knows no fatigue, and which 



THE EAOLE. 433 

remains secure as long as the })ressure from a])ove keeps the limbs 
bent. 

To return to the Eagle. When, therefore, the bird desires to 
drive his talons into the body of his prey, he needs only to sink 
downwards with his whole weight, and the forcible bending of his 
legs will contract the talons with irresistible force, without the 
necessity of any muscular exertion. 

Exertion, indeed, is never needlessly used by the Eagle, for it 
is very chary of putting forth its great muscular powers, and unless 
roused by the sight of prey, or pressed to fly abroad in search of 
food, will sit upon a tree or point of rock for hours as motionless 
as a stuffed figure. 

The Golden Eagle is a truly magnificent bird in size and appear- 
ance. A full-grown female measures about three feet six inches in 
length, and the expanse of her wings is nine feet. The male bird 
is smaller by nearly six inches. The colour of the bird is a rich 
blackish brown on the greater part of the body, the head and neck 
being covered with feathers of a golden red, which have earned for 
the bird its customary name. 

The Golden Eagle is observed to frequent certain favourite places, 
and to breed regularly in the same spot, for a long series of years. 
The nest is always made upon some high place, generally upon a 
ledge of rock, and is most roughly constructed of sticks. 

In hunting for their prey the Eagle and his mate assist each 
other. It may be also mentioned here that Eagles keep themselves 
to a single mate, and live together throughout their lives. Should, 
however, one of them die or be killed, the survivor does not long 
remain in a state of loneliness, but vanishes from the spot for a 
longer, or shorter time, and then returns with a new mate. 

As rabbits and hares, which form a frequent meal for the Eagle, 
are usually hidden under bushes and trees during the day, the 
birds are frequently forced to drive them from their place of con- 
cealment; this they have been observed to do in a very clever 
manner. One of the Eagles conceals itself near the cover, and 
its companion dashes among the bushes, screaming and making 
such a disturbance that the terrified inmates rush out in hopes of 
escape, and are immediately pounced upon by the watchful con- 
federate. 

The prey is immediately taken to the nest, and distributed to 
the young after being torn to pieces by the parent birds. 
^9 



434 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Four or five species of Eagle are known to inhabit Palestine. 
There is, for example, the Imperial Eagle (Aguila mogitnik), 
which may be distinguished from the Golden Eagle by a white 
patch on the shoulders, and the long, lancet-shaped feathers of 
the head and neck. These feathers are of a fawn colour, and 
contrast beautifully with the deep black-brown of the back and 
wings. It is not very often seen, being a bird that loves the 
forest, and that does not care to leave the shelter of the trees. 
It is tolerably common in Palestine. 

Then there are several of the allied species, of which the best 
example is perhaps the Short-toed Eagle {Circaetus cinereus), a 
bird which is extremely plentiful in the Holy Land — so plentiful 
indeed that, as Mr. Tristram remarks, there are probably twice 
as many of the Short-toed Eagles in Palestine as of all the other 
species put together. The genus to which this bird belongs does 
not take rank with the true Eagles, but is supposed by sys- 
tematic naturalists to hold an intermediate place between the 
true Eagles and the ospreys. 

The Short-toed Eagle is seldom a carrion-eater, preferring to 
kill its prey for itself. It feeds mostly on serpents and othei 
reptiles, and is especially fond of frogs. It is a large and some- 
what heavily built bird, lightness and swiftness being far less 
necessary than strength in taking the animals on which it feeds. 
It is rather more than two feet in length, and is a decidedly 
handsome bird, the back being dark brown, and the under parts 
white, covered with crescent-shaped black spots. 





EAGLE RETURNING TO TliK NEST WITH IIKU PREY. 



436 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE OSPEEY. 

rhe Osprey, or Fishing Eagle — Its geographical range — Mode of securing prcj — 
Structure of its feet — Its power of balancing itself in the air. 

We now come to the Osprey itself (Pandion haliaetus), which 
was undoubtedly one of the birds grouped together under the 
collective term Asniyeh. This word occurs only in the two 
passages in Deut. xiv. and Lev. xi. which have been several 
times quoted already, and need not be mentioned again. 

This fine bird is spread over a very large range of country, and 
is found in the New World as well as the Old. In consequence 
of its peculiar habits, it is often called the Fishing Eagle. 

The Osprey is essentially a fish-eater. It seems very strange 
that a predacious bird allied to the eagles, none of which birds 
can swim, much less dive, should obtain its living from the 
water. That the cormorant and other diving birds should do so 
is no matter of surprise, inasmuch as they are able to pursue the 
fish in their own element, and catch them by superior speed. 
But any bird which cannot dive, and which yet lives on fish, is 
forced to content itself with those fish that come to the surface 
of the water, a mode of obtaining a livelihood which does not 
appear to have much chance of success. Yet the Osprey does on 
a large scale what the kingfisher does on a small one, and con- 
trives to find abundant food in the water. 

Its method of taking prey is almost exactly like that which is 
employed by the kingfisher. When it goes out in search of 
food, it soars into the air, and floats in circles over the water, 
watching every inch of it as narrowly as a kestrel watches a^ 
stubble-field. No sooner does a fish rise toward the surface to 
take a fly, or to leap into the air for sport, than the Osprey darts 
downwards, grasps the fish in its talons, drags the struggling 
prey from the water, and with a scream of joy and triumph 
bears it away to shore, where it can be devoured at leisure. 

The bird never dives, neither does it seize the fish with its beak 
like the kingfisher. It plunges but slightly into the water, as 




TUE OSPREY SEARCHING FOR FI>SIi. 



438 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

otherwise it would not be able to use its strong wings and carry 
off its prey. In order to enable the bird to seize the hard and 
slippery body of the fish, it is furnished with long, very sharp, 
and boldly-hooked talons, which force themselves into the sides 
of the fish, and hold it as with grappling irons. 

The flight of the Osprey is peculiarly easy and elegant, as might 
be expected from a bird the length of whose body is only twenty- 
two inches, and the expanse of wing nearly five feet and a half. 

It is therefore able to hover over the water for long periods of 
time, and can balance itself in one spot without seeming to move 
a wing, having the singular facility of doing so even when a 
tolerably strong breeze is blowing. It has even been observed 
to maintain its place unmoved when a sharp squall swept over 
the spot. 

Harmless though the Osprey be — except to the fish — it is a most 
persecuted bird, being everywhere annoyed by rooks and crows, 
and, in America, robbed by the more powerful white-headed eagle. 

Such a scene is thus described by Wilson : 

" Elevated on the high, dead limb of a gigantic tree that com- 
manded a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, the 
great white-headed eagle calmly surveys the motions of various 
smaller birds that pursue their busy avocations below. 

" The snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air ; the trains of 
ducks streaming over the surface; silent and watchfiil cranes, 
intent and wading, and all the winged multitude that subsist by 
the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature. 

" High over all these, hovers one whose action instantly arrests 
the eagle's attention. By his wide curvature of wing and sudden 
suspension in the air he knows him to be the Osprey, settling over 
some devoted victim of the deep. The eyes of the eagle kindle at 
the sight, and balancing himself with half-opened wings on the 
branch, he watches the result. 

" Down, rapid as an arrow, from heaven descends the Osprey, 
the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the water, 
making the surges foam around ! At this moment the eager looks 
of the eagle are all ardour, and, levelling his neck for flight, he 
sees the Osprey once more emerge, struggling with his prey, and 
mounting in the air with screams of exultation. 

"These are the signals for the eagle, who, launching into the 





SNATCHED FKOM THE DEEP : THE OSPREY RISES WITH HIS PREY. 



440 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

air, instantly gives chase, and soon gains on the Osprey ; each 
exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying in this 
encounter the most elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. 

" The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the 
point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, prob- 
ably of despair and honest execration, the Osprey drops his fish. 

" The eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more 
certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp ere 
it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty silently away to 
the woods." 

Although not very plentiful in Palestine, nor indeed in any 
other country, the Osprey is seen throughout the whole of that 
country where it can find a sufficiency of water. It prefers the 
sea-shore and the rivers of the coast, and is said to avoid the Sea 
of Galilee. 



THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE. 

Tlie word Dayah and its signification — Dayah a collective term for diflferent 
species of Kites — The Common or Red Kite plentiful in Palestine — Its piercing 
sight and habit of soaring — The Black Kite of Palestine and its habits — The 
Egyptian Kite — The Raah or Glede of Scripture — The Buzzards and their 
habits — The Peregrine Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the 
Lanner of the eastern parts of the country. 

In Lev. xi. 14 and Deut. xiv. 13, we find the Vulture among the 
list of birds which the Jews were not permitted to eat. The 
word which is translated as Vulture is dayah, and we find it 
occurring again in Isaiah xxxiv. 15, " There shall the vultures 
also be gathered, every one with her mate." There is no doubt, 
however, that this translation of the word is an incorrect one, 
and that, it ought to be rendered as Kite. In Job xxviii. 7, there 
is a similar word, ayah, which is also translated as Vulture, and 
v;hich is acknowledged to be not a Vulture, but one of the 
Kites : " There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which 
the vulture's eye hath not seen." Both these words are nearly 



THE KITE. 



441 



identical with modern Arabic terms which are employed rathei 
loosely to signify several species of Kite. Buxtorf, in his 
Hebrew Lexicon, gives the correct rendering, translating dayah as 
Milvics, and the Vulgate in one or two places gives the same 
translation, though in others it renders the word as Vulture. 

Mr. Tristram, who has given much attention to this subject, 
is inclined to refer the word ayah to the Common Kite {Milvus 




THE KITE, OK VULTUBK OF SCBIPTUKE, 



regalis), which was once so plentiful in this country, and is now 
nearly extinct ; and dayah to the Black Kite (Milvus atra). He 
founds this distinction on the different habits of the two species, 
the Common or Ked Kite being thinly scattered, and being in the 
habit of soaring into the air at very great heights, and the latter 
being very plentiful and gregarious. 

We will first take the Red Kite. 

This bird is scattered all over PalestJine, feeding chiefly on the 
smaller birds, mice, reptiles, and fish. In the capture of fish the 
Kite is almost as expert as the osprey, darting from a groat 
19* 



442 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

height into the water, and bearing off the fish in its claws. The 
wings of this bird are very long and powerful, and bear it 
through the air in a peculiarly graceful flight. It is indeed in 
consequence of this flight that it has been called the Glede, the 
word being derived from its gliding movements. 

The sight of this bird is remarkably keen and piercing, and, 
from the vast elevation to which it soars when in search of 
food, it is able to survey the face of the country beneath, and to 
detect the partridge, quail, chicken, or other creature that will 
serve it for food. This piercing sight and habit of soaring 
render the passage in Job peculiarly appropriate to this species 
of Kite, though it does not express the habits of the other. 
Should the Kite suspect danger when forced to leave its nest, it 
escapes by darting rapidly into the air, and soaring at a vast 
height above the trees among which its home is made. From 
that elevation it can act as a sentinel, and will not come down 
again until it is assured of safety. 

Of the habits of the Black Kite {Milvus atrd), Mr. Tris- 
tram gives an admirable description. " The habits of the bird 
bear out the allusion in Isa. xxxiv. 15, for it is, excepting 
during the winter three months, so numerous everywhere in 
Palestine as to be almost gregarious. It returns about the be- 
ginning of March, and scatters itself over the whole country, 
preferring especially the neighbourhood of valleys, where it is a 
welcome and unmolested guest. It does not appear to attack 
the poultr}^ among whom it may often be seen feeding on 
garbage. It is very sociable, and the slaughter of a sheep at one 
of the tents will soon attract a large party of black kites, which 
swoop down regardless of man and guns, and enjoy a noisy 
scramble for the refuse, chasing each other in a laughable 
fashion, and sometimes enabling the wn'ly raven to steal off with 
the coveted morsel during their contentions. It is the butt of 
all the smaUer scavengers, and is evidently most unpopular with 
the crows and daws, and even rollers, who enjoy the amuse- 
ment of teasing it in their tumbling flight, which is a manoeuvre 
most perplexing to the kite." 

The same writer proceeds to mention that the Black Kite 
unlike the red species, is very careless about the position of its 
nest, and never even attempts to conceal it, sometimes building 



THE KITE. 443 

It in a tree, sometimes on a rock-ledge, and sometimes in a bush 
growing on the rocks. It seems indeed desirous of making the 
nest as conspicuous as possibl/), and hangs it all over with bits 
of cloth, strips of bark, wings of birds, and even the cast skins 
of serpents. 

Another species [Milvus jEgyptiaciis) is sometimes called the 
Black Kite from the dark hue of its plumage, but ought rather 
to retain the title of Egyptian Kite. Unlike the black kite, 
this bird is a great thief, and makes as much havoc among 
poultry as the red kite. It is also a robber of other birds, and if 
it should happen to see a weaker . bird with food, it is sure to 
attack and rob it. Like the black kite, it is fond of the society 
of man, and haunts the villages in great numbers, for the pur- 
pose of eating the offal, which in Oriental towns is simply flung 
into the streets to be devoured by the dogs, vultures, kites, and 
other scavengers, without whom no village would be habitable 
for a month. 

Whether the word raah, which is translated as Glede in 
Deut. xiv. 13, among the list of birds which may not be eaten, 
is one of these species of Kite, or a bird of a different group, is a 
very doubtful point. This is the only passage in which the 
word occurs, and we have but small grounds for definitely iden- 
tifying it with any one species. The Hebrew Bible retains the 
word Glede, but affixes a mark of doubt to it, and several com- 
mentators are of opinion that the word is a wrong reading of 
dayah, which occurs in the parallel passage in Lev. xi. 14. The 
reading of the Septuagint follows this interpretation, and renders 
it as Vulture in both cases. Buxtorf translates the word raah 
as Eook, but suggests that dayah is the correct reading. 

Accepting, however, the word raahy we shaU find that it is 
derived from a root which signifies sight or vision, especially of 
some particular object, so that a piercing sight would therefore 
be the chief characteristic of the bird, which, as we know, is one 
of the attributes of the Kites, together with other birds of prey, 
90 that it evidently must be classed among the group with which 
we are now concerned. It has been suggested that, granting 
the raah to be a species distinct from the dayah, it is a collective 
term for the larger falcons and buzzards, several species of which 
inhabit Palestine, and are not distinctly mentioned in the Bible. 



444 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



Several species of buzzard inhabit the Holy Land, and there 
is no particular reason why they should be mentioned except by 
a collective name. Some of the buzzards are very large birds, 
and though their wings are short when compared with those of 
the vultures and eagles, the flight of the bird is both powerful 
and graceful It is not, however, remarkable for swiftness, and 




THE PSTtBORlNB FAXCON, OR GLEDE OF SCRIPTURE. 



/icA'er was employed, like the falcoD, in catching other birds, 
being reckoned as one of the useless and cowardly birds of 
prey. In consonance with this opinion, to compare a man to a 
buzzard was thought a most cutting insult. 

As a general rule, it does not chase its prey like the eagles or 
the large-winged falcons, but perches on a rock or tree, watches 



THE KITE. 445 

for some animal on which it can feed, pounces on it, and returns 
to its post, the whole movements being very like those of the 
flycatcher. This sluggishness of disposition, and the soft and 
almost owl-like plumage, have been the means of bringing the 
bird into contempt among falconers. 

As to the large falcoils, which seem to be included in the term 
raah, the chief of them is the Peregrine Falcon {Falco pere- 
grinus), which is tolerably common in the Holy Land. In his 
"Land of Israel," Mr. Tristram gives several notices of this bird, 
from which we may take the following picture from a description 
of a scene at Endor. "Dreary and desolate looked the plain, 
though of exuberant fertility. Here and there might be seen 
a small flock of sheep or herd of cattle, tended by three or 
four mounted villagers, armed with their long firelocks, and 
pistols and swords, on the watch against any small party of 
marauding cattle-lifters. 

" Griffon vultures were wheeling in circles far over the 
rounded top of Tabor ; and here and there an eagle was soaring 
beneath them in search of food, but at a most inconvenient dis- 
tance from our guns. Hariers were sweeping more rapidly and 
closely over the ground, where lambs appeared to be their only 
prey ; and a noble peregrine falcon, which in Central Palestine 
does not give place to the more eastern lanner, was perched on 
an isolated rock, calmly surveying the scene, and permitting us 
to approach and scrutinize him at our leisure." 

The habit of perching on the rock, as mentioned abovCj is very 
characteristic of the Peregrine Falcon, who loves the loftiest 
and most craggy cliffs, and makes its nest in spots which can 
only be reached by a bold and experienced climber. The nests 
of this bird are never built in close proximity, the Peregrine 
preferring to have its home at least a mile from the nest of any 
other of 'its kinsfolk. Sometimes it makes a nest in lofty trees, 
taking possession of the deserted home of some other bird ; but 
it loves the cliff better than the tree, and seldom builds in the 
latter when the former is attainable. 

In the passage from the " Land of Israel " is mentioned the 
Lanner Falcon (Falco lanarius), another of the larger falcons 
to wh-ich the term raali may have been applied. 

This bird is much larger than the Peregrine Falcon, and, in- 
deed, is very little less than the great gerfalcon itself. It is one 



446 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



of the birds that were reckoned among the noble falcons ; and 
the female, which is much larger and stronger than the male, 
was employed for the purpose of chasing the kite, whose long 
and powerful wings could not always save it from such a foe. 

Although the Lanner has been frequently mentioned among 
the British birds, and the name is therefore familiar to us, it is 




r"=^^^^^^ 



THE LAJfJfER FALOOS. 



not even a visitor of our island The mistake has occurred b}- 
an error in nomenclature, the young female Peregrine Falcon^ 
which is much larger and darker than the male bu'd, having 
been erroneously called by the name of Lanner. 

In the illustration, a pair of Lanner Falcons are depicted as 
pursuing some of the rock-pigeons which abound in Palestine, 
the attitudes of both birds being taken from life. 




THE HAWK. 



The Netz or Hawk- Number of species probably grouped under that name — Kare 
occurrsnce of the word — The Sparrow-Hawk and its general habits — Its place 
of nesting — The Kestrel, or Wind-hover — Various names by which it is known 
in England — Its mode of feeding and curious flight — The Hariers — Probable 
derivation of the name — Species of Harier known to inhabit Palestine — 
Falconiy apparently unknown to the ancient Jews, 



There is no doubt that a considerable number of species are 
grouped together under the single title Netz, or Hawk, a word 
which is rightly enough translated. That a great number of 
birds should have been thus confounded together is not sur- 
prising, seeing that even in this country and at the present time, 
the single word Hawk may signify any one of at least twelve 
different species. The various falcons, the hariers, the kestrel, 
the sparrow-hawk, and the hobTjies, are one and all called 
popularly by the name of Hawk, and it is therefore likely 
that the Hebrew word Netz would signify as many species as 

447 



448 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the English word Hawk. From them we will select one or twc 
of theprincipal species. 

In the first place, the word is of very rare occurrence. We 
only find it three times. It first occurs in Lev. xi. 16, in whicli 
it is named, together with the eagle, the ossifrage, and many 
other birds, as among the unclean creatures, to eat which was an 
abomination. It is next found in the parallel passage in Deut. 
xiv. 15, neither of which portions of Scripture need be quoted 
at length. 

That the word netz was used in its collective sense is very 
evident from the addition which is made to it in both cases. 
The Hawk, "after its kind," is forbidden, showing therefore 
that several kinds or species of Hawk were meant. Indeed, any 
specific detail would be quite needless, as the collective term 
was quite a sufficient indication, and, having named the vultures, 
eagles, and larger birds of prey, the simple word netz was con- 
sidered by the sacred writer as expressing the rest of the birds 
of prey. 

We find the word once more in that part of the Bible to which 
we usually look for any reference to natural history. In Job 
XXXIX. 26, we have the words, "Doth the hawk fly by thy 
wisdom, and turn [or stretch] her wings toward the south ? " 
The precise signification of this passage is rather doubtful, but 
it is generally considered to refer to the migration of several 
of the Hawk tribe. That the bird in question was distinguished 
for its power of flight is evident from the fact that the sacred 
poet has selected that one attribute as the most characteristic 
of the Netz. 

TakiQg first the typical example of the Hawks, we find that 
the Spaerow-H1a.wk {Accipiter nisus) is plentiful in Palestine, 
finding abundant food in the smaller birds of the country. It 
selects for its nest just the spots which are so plentiful in the 
Holy Land, i. e. the crannies of rocks, and the tops of tall trees. 
Sometimes it builds in deserted ruins, but its favourite spot 
seems to be the lofty tree-top, and, in default of that, the rock- 
crevice. It seldom builds a nest of its own, but takes possession 
of that which has been made by some other bird. Some orni- 
thologists think that it looks out for a convenient nest, say of 
the crow or magpie, and then ejects the rightful owner. I am 
inclined to think, however, that it mostly takes possession of a 



THE HA WK. 



449 



nest that is already deserted, without running the risk of fighting 
such enemies as a pair of angry magpies. Tliis opinion is 
strengthened by the fact that the bird resorts to the same nest 
year after year. 

It is a bold and dashing bird, though of no great size, and 
when wild and free displays a courage which it seems to lose in 
captivity. As is the case with so many of the birds, the female 
is much larger than her mate, the former weighing about six 
ounces, and measuring about a foot in length, and the latter 
sveighing above nine ounces, and measuring about fifteen inches 
in length. 




KESTKEL HOVEKING OVER A FIELD IN SEARCH OF TREY. 



The most plentiful of the smaller Hawks of Palestine is the 
Common Kestrel. This is the same species which is known 
under the names of Kestrel, Wind-hover, and Stannel Hawk. 

It derives its name of Wind-hover from its remarkable habit 
of hovering, head to windward, over some spot for many minutes 
tocrether. This action is always performed at a moderate dis- 
tance from the ground; some naturalists saying that the Hawk in 
question never hovers at an elevation exceeding forty feet, while 



450 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

others, myself included, have seen the bird hovering at a height 
of twice as many yards. Generally, however, it prefers a lower 
distance, and is able by employing this manoeuvre to survey a 




THE WIND-HOYEE, OR KESTREL. 



tolerably large space beneath. As its food consists in a very 
great measure of field-mice, the Kestrel is thus able by means 
of its telescopic eyesight to see if a mouse rises from its hole ; 



THE HA WK. 451 

and if it should do so, the bird drops on it and secures it in its 
claws. 

Unlike the sparrow-hawk, the Kestrel is undoubtedly gre- 
garious, and will build its nest in close proximity to the habita- 
tions of other birds, a number of nests being often found within 
a few yards of each other. Mr. Tristram remarks that he has 
found its nest in the recesses of the caverns occupied by the 
griffon vultures, and that the Kestrel also builds close to the 
eagles, and is the only bird which is permitted to do so. It also 
builds in company with the jackdaw. 

Several species of Kestrel are known, and of them at least 
two inhabit the Holy Land, the sec'ond being a much smaller 
bird than the Common Kestrel, and feeding almost entirely on 
insects, which it catches with its claws, the common chafers 
forming its usual prey. Great numbers of these birds live 
together, and as they rather affect the society of mankind, they 
are fond of building their nests in convenient crannies in the 
mosques or churches. Independently of its smaller size, it may 
be distinguished from the Common Kestrel by the whiteness of 
its claws. 

The illustration is drawn from a sketch taken from Mfe. The 
bird hovered so near a house, and remained so long in one place, 
that the artist fixed a telescope and secured an exact sketch of 
the bird in the peculiar attitude which it is so fond of assuming. 
After a while, the Kestrel ascended to a higher elevation, and 
then resumed its hovering, in the attitude which is shown in the 
upper figure. In consequence of the great abundance of this 
species in Palestine, and the peculiarly conspicuous mode of 
balancing itself in the air while in search of prey, we may feel 
sure that the sacred writers had it specially in their minds when 
they used the collective term Netz. 

It is easily trained, and, although in the old hawking days it 
was considered a bird which a noble could not carry, it can be 
trained to chase the smaller birds as successfully as the falcons 
can be taught to pursue the heron. The name Tinnuncidus is 
supposed by some to have been given to the bird in allusion to 
its peculiar cry, which is clear, shrill, and consists of a single 
note several times repeated. 

On page 444 the reader may see a representation of a pair of 
Hakier Hawks flying below the rock on which the peregrine 



452 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

falcon has perched, and engaged in pursuing one of the smallei 
birds. 

They have been introduced because several species of Harier 
are to be found in Palestine, where they take, among the plains 
and lowlands, the place which is occupied by the other hawks 
and falcons among the rocks. 

The name of Harier appears to be given to these birds on 
account of their habit of regularly quartering the ground over 
which they fly when in search of prey, just like hounds when 
searching for hares. This bird is essentially a haunter of flat 
and marshy lands, where it finds frogs, mice, lizards, on which 
it usually feeds. It does not, however, confine itself to such 
food, but will chase and kill most of the smaller birds, and 
occasionally will catch even the leveret, the rabbit, the par- 
tridge, and the curlew. 

When it chases winged prey, it seldom seizes the bird in the 
air, but almost invariably keeps above it, and gradually drives it 
to the ground. It will be seen, therefore, that its flight is 
mostly low, as suits the localities in which it lives, and it seldom 
soars to any great height, except when it amuses itself by rising 
and wheeling in circles together with its mate. This proceeding 
generally takes place before nest-building. The usual flight is 
a mixture of that of the kestrel and the falcon, the Hariei 
sometimes poising itself over some particular spot, and at others 
shooting forwards through the air with motionless wings. 

Unlike the falcons and most of the hawks, the Harier does 
not as a rule perch on rocks, but prefers to sit very upright on 
the ground, perching generally on a mole-hill, stone, or some 
similar elevation. Even its nest is made on the ground, and is 
composed of reeds, sedges, sticks, and similar matter, materials 
that can be procured from marshy land. The nest is always 
elevated a foot or so from the ground, and has occasionally been 
found on the top of a mound more than a yard in height. It 
is, however, conjectured that in such cases the mound is made 
b^ one nest being built upon the remains of another. The 
oV)ject of the elevated nest is probably to preserve the eggs in 
case of a flood. 

At least five species of Hariers are known to exist in the 
[My Land, two of which are among the British birds, namely, 
the Marsh Harier {Circus certcginosvs), sometimes called the Duck 



!rHE HAWK. 453 

Hawk and the Moor Buzzard, and the Hen Harier (Cirms 
cjaneiis), sometimes called the White Hawk, Dove Hawk, or Blue 
Hawk, on account of the plumage of the male, which differs 
greatly according to age ; and the Eing -tailed Hawk, on account 
of the dark bars which appear on the tail of the female. All 
the Hariers are remarkable for the circlet of feathers that sur- 
rounds the eyes, and which resembles in a lesser degree the bold 
feather-circle around the eye of the owl tribe. 

Before taking leave of the Hawks, it is as well to notice the 
entire absence in the Scriptures of any reference to falconry. 
Now, seeing that the art of catching birds and animals by means 
of Hawks is a favourite amusement among Orientals, as has 
already been mentioned when treating of the gazelle (page 168), 
and knowing the unchanging character of the East, we cannot 
but think it remarkable that no reference should be made to this 
sport in the Scriptures. 

It is true that in Palestine itself there would be but little 
scope for falconry, the rough hilly ground and abundance of 
cultivated soil rendering such an amusement almost impossible. 
Besides, the use of the falcon implies that of the horse, and, as 
we have already seen, the horse was scarcely ever used except 
for military purposes. 

Had, therefore, the experience of the Israelites been confined 
to Palestine, there would have been good reason for the silence 
of the sacred writers on this subject. But when we remember 
that the surrounding country is well adapted for falconry, that 
the amusement is practised there at the present day, and that 
the Israelites passed so many years as captives in other countries, 
we can but wonder that the Hawks should never be mentioned 
as aids to bird-catching. We find that other bird-catching 
implements are freely mentioned and employed as familiar 
symbols, such as the gin, the net, the snare, the trap, and so 
forth ; but that there is not a single passage in which the Hiiwlcs 
are mentioned aF^ employed in falconry. 




THE OWL. 



The words which have been translated as Owl — Use made of the Little Owl in bird- 
catching — Habits of the bird — The Barn, Screech, or White Owl a native of 
Palestine — The Yanshdph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl — Its food and nest. 

In various parts of the Old Testament there occur several 
words which are translated as Owl in the Authorized Version, 
and in most cases the rendering is acknowledged to be the 
correct one, while in one or two instances there is a difference of 
opinion on the subject. 

In Lev. xi. 16, 17, we find the following birds reckoned among 
those which are an abomination, and .which might not be eaten 
by the IsraeKtes : " Tbe owl, and the night-hawk, and the 
cuckoo, and the hawk after his kind ; 

"And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl." 

454 



THE OWL. 455 

It is very likely that the Little Owl here mentioned is identical 
with the Boomah of the Arabs. It is a bird that is common in 
Europe, where it is much valued by bird-catchers, who employ it as 
a means of attracting small birds to their traps. They place it on 
the top of a long pole, and carry it into the fields, where they 
plant the pole in the ground. This Owl has a curious habit of 
swaying its body backwards and forwards, and is sure to attract 
the notice of all the small birds in the neighbourhood. It is 
well known that the smaller birds have a peculiar hatred to the 
Owl, and never can pass it without mobbing it, assembling in 
great numbers, and so intent on their occupation that they seem 
to be incapable of perceiving anything but the object of their 
hatred. Even rooks, magpies, and hawks are taken by this 
simple device. 

Whether or not the Little Owl was used for this object by tlio. 
ancient inhabitants of Palestine is rather doubtful ; but as they 
certainly did so employ decoy birds for the purpose of attracting 
game, it is not unlikely that the Little Owl was found to serve 
as a decoy. We shall learn more about the system of decoy- 
birds when we come to the partridge. 

The Little Owl is to be found in almost every locality, caring 
little whether it takes up its residence in cultivated grounds, in 
villages, among deserted ruins, or in places where man has 
never lived. As, however, it is protected by the natives, it 
prefers the neighbourhood of villages, and may be seen quietly 
perched in some favourite spot, not taking the trouble to move 
unless it be approached closely. And to detect a perched Owl 
is not at aU an easy matter, as the bird has a way of selecting 
some spot where the colours of its plumage harmonize so well 
with the surrounding objects that the large eyes are often the 
first indication of its presence. Many a time I have gone to 
search after Owls, and only been made aware of them by the 
sharp angry snap that they make when startled. 

The common and well-known Barn Owl, also inhabits Pales- 
tine. Like the Little Owl, it affects the neighbourhood of man, 
though it may be found in ruins and similar localities. An old 
ruined building is sure to be tenanted by the Barn Owl, whose 
nightly shrieks very often terrify the belated wanderer, and 
make him fancy that the place is haunted by disturbed spirits. 
Such being the habits of the bird, it is likely that in the East, 



456 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



where popular superstition has peopled every well with its jinn 
and every ruin with its spirit, the nocturnal cry of this bird, 
which is often called the Screech Owl from its note, should be 
exceedingly terrifying, and would impress itself on the minds of 
sacred writers as a fit image of solitude, terror, and desolation. 

The Screech Owl is scarcely less plentiful in Palestine than 
tlie Little Owl, and, whether or not it be mentioned under a 

\ 




THE LITTLB OVfU 



separate name, is sure to be one of the birds to which allusion is 
made in the Scriptures. 



Another pame now rises before us : this is the Yanshiiph, 
translated as the Great Owl, a word which occurs not only in 
the prohibitory passages of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, but in 
the Book of Isaiah. In that book, ch. xxxiv. ver. 10, 11, we find 
the following passage : " From generation to generation it shall 
lie waste ; none shall pass through it for ever and ever. - 




CAUGHT NAPPING. 



20 



458 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

" But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it ; the owl 
{yanshiXpli) also and the raven shall dwell in it : and He shall 
stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones oi 
emptiness." The Jewish Bible foUows the same reading. 

It is most probable that the Great Owl or Yanshuph is the 
Egyptian Eagle Owl {Bubo ascala'plius), a bird which is closely 
allied to the great Eagle Owl of Europe [Buho maximus), and 
the Virginian Eared Owl {Bubo Virginianus) of America. This 
fine bird measures some two feet in length, and looks much 
larger than its real size, owing to the thick coating of feathers 
which it wears in common with all true Owls, and the ear-like 
feather tufts on the top of its head, which it can raise or depress 
at pleasure. Its plumage is light tawny. 

This bird has a special predilection for deserted places and 
ruins, and may at the present time be seen on the very spots of 
which the prophet spoke in his prediction. It is very plentiful 
in Egypt, where the vast ruins are the only relics of a creed 
long passed away or modified into other forms of religion, and 
its presence only intensifies rather than diminishes the feeling 
of loneliness that oppresses the traveller as he passes among the 
ruins. 

The European Eagle Owl has all the habits of its Asiatic 
congener. It dwells in places far from the neighbourhood of 
man, and during the day is hidden in some deep and dark recess, 
its enormous eyes not being able to endure the light of day. In 
the evening it issues from its retreat, and begins its search after 
prey, which consists of various birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, fi^h, 
and even insects when it can find nothing better. 

On account of its comparatively large dimensions, it is able 
to overcome even the full-grown hare and rabbit, while the lamb 
and the young fawn occasionally fall victims to its voracity. 
Ft seems never to chase any creature on the wing, but floats 
=:ilently through the air, its soft and downy plumage deadening 
the sound of its progress, and suddenly drops on the unsuspect- 
ing prey while it is on the ground. 

The nest of this Owl is made in the crevices of rocks, or in 
ruins, and is a very large one, composed of sticks and twigs, 
lined with a tolerably large heap of dried herbage, the parent 
Owls returning to the same spot year after year. Should it not 
be able to find either a rock or a ruin, it contents itself with a 




A FAMILY COUNCIL. 



THE OWL. 



461 



hollow in the ground, and there lays its eggs, which are generally 
two in number, though occasionally a third egg is found. The 
Egyptian Eagle Owl does much the same thing, burrowing in 
sand-banks, and retreating, if it fears danger, into the hollow 
where its nest has been made. 

In the large illustration the two last-mentioned species are 
given. The Egyptian Eagle Owl is seen with its back towards 
the spectator, grasping in its talons a dead hare, and with ear- 
tufts erect is looking towards the Barn Owl, which is contem- 
plating in mingled anger and fear the proceedings of the larger 
bird. Near them is perched a raven, in order to carry out more 
fully the prophetic words, "the owl also and the raven shall 
dwell in it." 





THE NIGHT-HAWK. 



Different interpretations of the word Tachmas — Probability that it signifies the 
Nightjar — Various names of the bird — Its remarkable jarring cry, and wheel- 
ing flight — Mode of feeding — Boldness of the ^ird — Deceptive appearance of 
its size. 



We next come to the vexed question of the word Tachmas 
which is rendered in the Authorized Version as Night-hawk 

This word only occurs among the list of prohibited birds (see 
Lev. xi. 16, and Deut. xiv. 15), and has caused great con- 
troversies among commentators. The balance of probabihty 
seems to lie between two interpretations, — namely, that which 
considers the word tachmas to signify the Night-hawk, and that 
which translates it as Owl. For both of these interpretations 
much is to be said, and it cannot be denied that of the two 
the latter is perhaps the preferable. If so, the White or Barn 
Owl is probably the particular species to which reference is 
made. 

Still, many commentators think that the Night-hawk or 
Nightjar is the bird which is signified by the word tachmds; 
462 



THE NIGHT-HA WK. 463 

and, as we have already treated of the owls, we will accept the 
rendering of the Authorized Version. Moreover, the Jewish 
Bible follows the same translation, and renders tacJimds as 
Night-hawk, but affixes the mark of doubt. 

It is not unlikely that the Jews may have reckoned this bird 
among the owls, just as is the case with the uneducated among 
ourselves, who popularly speak of the Nightjar as the I'ern Owl, 
Chum Owl, or Jar OwL the two last names being given to 




THE NIGHT-HAWIL 



it on account of its peculiar cry. There are few birds, indeed, 
which have received a greater variety of popular names, for. 
besides the Goatsucker and the five which have already been 
mentioned, there are the Wheel-bird and Dor-hawk, the former 
of these names having been given to the bird on account of its 
wheeling round the trees while seeking for prey, and the latter 
on account of the dor-beetles on which it largely feeds. 

This curious variety of names is probably due to the very 
conspicuous character of the Nightjar, its strange, jarring, weird- 
like cry forcing itself on the ear of the least attentive, as it 



464 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

breaks the silence of night. It hardly seems like the cry of 
a bird, but rather resembles the sound of a pallet falling on 
the cogs of a rapidly- working wheel. It begins -in the dusk of 
evening, the long, jarring note being rolled out almost inter- 
minably, until the hearer wonders how the bird can have breath 
enough for such a prolonged sound. The hearer may hold his 
breath as long as he can, take a fuU inspiration, hold his breath 
afresh, and repeat this process over and over again, and yet the 
Mghtjar continues to trill out its rapid notes without a moment's 
cessation for breath, the sound now rising shrill and clear, and 
now sinking as if the bird were far off, but never ceasing for an 
instant. 

This remarkable cry has caused the uneducated rustics to 
look upon the bird with superstitious dread, every one knowing 
its cry full well, though to many the bird is unknown except 
by its voice. It is probable that, in the days when Moses wrote 
the Law, so conspicuous a bird was well known to the Jews, 
and we may therefore conjecture that it was one of those birds 
which he would specially mention by name. 

The general habits of the Nightjar are quite as remarkable as 
its note. It feeds on the wing, chasing and capturing the various 
moths, beetles, and other insects that fly abroad by night. It 
may be seen wheeling round the branches of some tree, the oak 
being a special favourite, sometimes circling round it, and some- 
times rising high in the air, and the next moment skimming 
along the ground. Suddenly it will disappear, and next moment 
its long trilling 'cry is heard from among the branches of the 
tree round which it has been flying. To see it while singing is 
almost impossible, for it has a habit of sitting longitudinally on 
the branch, and not across it, like most birds, so that the outline 
of its body cannot be distinguished from that of the bough on 
which it is seated. As suddenly as it began, the sound ceases, 
and simultaneously the bird may be seen wheeling again through 
the air with its noiseless flight. 

Being a very bold bird, and not much afraid of man, it allows 
a careful observer to watch its movements clearly. I have often 
stood close to the tree round which several Nightjars were 
circling, and seen them chase their prey to the ground within a 
yard or two of the spot on which I was standing. The flight of 
the Nightjar is singularly graceful. Swift as the swallow itself, 



THE NIGHT-HAWK. 



465 



it presents a command of wing that is really wonderful, gliding 
through the air with consummate ease, wheeling and doubling 
in pursuit of some active moth, whose white wings glitter 
against the dark background, while the sober plumage of its 
pursuer is scarcely visible, passing often within a few feet of the 
spectator, and yet not a sound or a rustle will reach his ears. 
Sometimes the bird is said to strike its wings together over its 
back, so as to produce a sharp snapping sound, intended to 
express anger at the presence of the intruder. I never, how- 
ever, heard this sound, though I have watched the bird so 
often. 

Owing to the soft plumage with which it is clad, this bird, 
like the owls, looks larger than really is the case. It is between 
ten and eleven inches in length, with an expanse of wing of 
twenty inches, and yet weighs rather less than three ounces. 
Its large mouth, like that of the swallow tribe, opens as far as 
the eyes, and is furnished with a set of vthrissce or bristles, which 
remind the observer of the "whale-bone" which is set on the 
jaw of the Greenland whale. 




o -^^ - - 



20^ 




[iiii;i?'M '■'.ii'iiijj;/'!''''' 



THE SWALLOW. 



Identification of the smaller birds — Oriental indiflFerenee to natural history — Use 
of collective terms — The Swallow — The Bird of Liberty — Swallows and Swifts 
— Variety of small birds found in Palestine — The Swallows of Palestine. 

Difficult as is the identification of the mammalia mentioned 
'm the Bible, that of the birds is much more intricate. 

Some of the larger birds can be identified with tolerable cer- 
tainty, but when we come to the smaller and less conspicuous 
species, we are at once lost in uncertainty, and at the best can 
only offer conjectures. The fact is, the Jews of old had no 
idea of discriminating between the smaller birds, unless they 
happened to be tolerably conspicuous by plumage or by voice. 
We need not be much surprised at this. The Orientals of 
the present day do precisely the same thing, and not only 
fail to discriminate between the smaller birds, but absolutely 
have no names for them. 

By them, the shrikes, the swallows, the starlings, the thrushes, 
the larks, the warblers, and all the smaller birds, are called by 
a common title, derived from the twittering sound of their 
voices, only one or two of them having any distinctive titles. 
They look upon the birds much as persons ignorant of ento- 
mology look at a collection of moths. There is not much 
difficulty in discriminating between the great hawk- moths, and 
perhaps in giving a name to one or two of them which are 
specially noticeable for any peculiarity of form or colour ; 
but when they come to the " Eustics," the " Carpets," the 
•'Wainscots," and similar groups, they are utterly lost; and, 
though they may be able to see the characteristic marks when 

466 



THE SWALLOW. 467 

the moths are placed side by side, they are incapable of distiii 
guishing them separately, and, to tlieir uneducated eyes, twentv 
or thirty species appear absolutely alike. 

I believe that there is no country where a knowledge of prac- 
tical natural history is so widely extended as in England, and 
yet how few educated persons are there who, if taken along a 
country lane, can name the commonest weed or insect, or dis- 
tinguish between a sparrow, a linnet, a hedge-sparrow, and a 
chaffinch. Nay, how many are there who, if challenged even to 
repeat the names of twelve little birds, would be unable to do so 
without some consideration, much less to know them if the birds 
were placed before them. 

Such being the case in a country where the capability of 
observation is more or less cultivated in every educated person, 
we may well expect that a profound ignorance on the subject 
should exist in countries where that faculty is absolutely neg- 
lected as a matter of education. Moreover, in England, there 
is a comparatively limited list of birds, whereas in Palestine 
are found nearly all those which are reckoned among British 
birds, and many other species besides. Those which reside in 
England reside also for the most p^rt in Palestine, while the 
greater part of the migratory birds pass, as we might expect, 
into the Holy Land and the neighbouring countries. 

If then we put together the two facts of an unobservant 
people and a vastly extended fauna, we shall not wonder that 
so many collective terms are used in the Scriptures, one word 
often doing duty for twenty or thirty species. The only plan, 
therefore, which can be adopted, is to mention generally the 
birds which were probably grouped under one name, and to 
describe briefly one or two of the most prominent. 

It is, however, rather remarkable that the song of birds does 
not appear to be noticed by the sacred writers. We might 
expect that several of the prophets, especially Isaiah, the great 
sacred poet, who drew so many of his images from natural 
objects, would have found in the song of birds some metaphor 
expressive of sweetness or joy. We might expect that in the 
Book of Job, in which so many creatures are mentioned, the 
singing of birds would be brought as prominently forward as 
the neck clothed with thunder of the horse, the tameless free- 
dom of the wild ass, the voracity of the vulture, and the swift- 



468 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

ness of the ostrich. We might expect the song of hirds to he 
mentioned hy Amos, the herdman of Tekoa, who introduces 
into his rugged poem the roar of the old lion and the wail of 
the cuh, the venom of the serpent hidden in the wattled wall of 
the herdman's hut, and the ravages of the palmer-worm among 
the olives. Above all, we might expect that in the Psalms there 
would be many allusions to the notes of the various birds which 
have formed such fruitful themes for the poets of later times. 
There are, however, in the whole of the Scriptures but two 
passages in which the song of birds is mentioned, and even in 
these only a passing allusion is made. 

One of them occurs in Psalm civ. 12 : "By them {i.e. the 
springs of water) shall the fowls of the heaven have their habi- 
tation, which sing among the branches." This passage is perhaps 
rendered more closely in the Jewish Bible : " Over them dwell 
the fowls of the heaven ; they let their voices resound (or give 
their voice) from between the foliage." 

The other occurs in Eccles. xii. 4 : " And the doors shall be 
shut in the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low, and 
he shall rise up at the voice of the bird, and all the daughters 
of music shall be brought low." The word which is here trans- 
lated as " bird," is that which is rendered in some places as 
" sparrow," in others as " fowl," and in others as " bird." Even 
in the^se passages, as the reader will have noticed, no marks of 
appreciation are employed, and we hear nothing of the sweetness, 
joyousness, or mournfulness of the bird's song. 

We will now proceed to the words which have been translated 
as Swallow in the Authorized Version. 

These are two in number, namely, deror and agar. Hebraists 
are, however, agreed that the latter word has been wrongly 
applied, the translators having interchanged the signification of 
two contiguous words. 

We will therefore first take the word deror. This word 
signifies liberty, and is well apphed to the Swallow, the bird of 
freedom. It is remarkable, by the way, how some of the old 
commentators have contrived to perplex themselves about a very 
simple matter. One of them comments upon the bird as being 
" so called, because it has the Kberty of building in the houses 
uf mankind." Another takes a somewhat similar view of th« 




LOST FROM THE FLOCK. 



470 STORY OF THE bAlE ANIMALS. 

case, but puts it in a catechetical form : " Why is the swalloi^ 
called the bird of liberty ? Because it lives both in the house 
and in the field." It is scarcely necessary to point out to the 
reader that the " liberty " to which allusion is made is the 
liberty of flight, the bird coming and going at its appointed 
times, and not being capable of domestication. 

Several kinds of Swallow are known in Palestine, including 
the true Swallows, the martins, and the swifts, and, as we shall 
presently see, it is likely that one of these groups was distin- 
guished by a separate name. Whether or not the word deror 
included other birds beside the Swallows is rather doubtful, 
though not at all unlikely ; and if so, it is probable that any 
swift-wdnged insectivorous bird would be called by the name of 
Deror, irrespective of its size or colour. 

The bee-eaters, for example, are probably among the number 
of the birds grouped together under the word deror, and we 
may conjecture that the same is the case with the sunbirds, 
those bright-plumed little beings that take in the Old World the 
place occupied by the humming-birds in the New, and often 
mistaken for them by travellers who are not acquainted with 
ornithology. One of these birds, the Nectarinia Osece, is de- 
scribed by Mr. Tristram as " a tiny little creature of gorgeous 
plumage, rivalling the humming-birds of America in the metallic 
lustre of its feathers — green and purple, with brilliant red and 
orange plumes under its shoulders." 

In order to account for the singular variety of animal life 
which is to be found in Palestine, and especially the exceeding 
diversity of species among the birds, we must remember that 
Palestine is a sort of microcosm in itself, comprising within its 
narrow boundaries the most opposite conditions of temperature, 
climate, and soil. Some parts are rocky, barren, and moun- 
tainous, chilly and cold at the top, and acting as channels 
through which the winds blow almost continuously. The cliffs 
are fuU of holes, rifts, and caverns, some natural, some artificial, 
and some of a mixed kind, the original caverns having been 
enlarged and improved by the hand of man. 

As a contrast to this rough and ragged region, there lie close 
at hand large fertile plains, affording pasturage for unnumbered 
cattle, and of a tolerably equable temperature, so that the 
animals which are pastured in it can find food throughout 



THE <S WALLOW. 



471 



the year. Through the centre of Palestine runs the Jordan, fer- 
tilizing its banks with perpetual verdure, and ending its course 
in the sulphurous and bituminous waters of the Dead Sea, 
under whose waves the ruins of the wicked cities are supposed 
to lie. Westward we have the shore of the Mediterranean with 




THE SWALLOW AND SWIFT. 



its tideless waves of the salt sea, and on the eastward of the 
mountain range that runs nearly parallel to the sea is the great 
Lake of Tiberias, so large as to have earned the name of the Sea 
of Galilee. 

Under these favourable conditions, therefore, the number of 
species which are found in Palestine is perhaps greater than can 
be seep ixx any other part of the earth of the same dimensions, 



472 



STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



and it seems probable that for this reason, among many others^ 
Palestine was selected to be the Holy Land. If, for example, 
the Christian Church had been originated under the tropics, 
those who lived in a cold climate could scarcely have understood 
the language in which the Scriptures must necessarily have been 
couched. Had it, on the contrary, taken its rise in the Arctic 
regions, the inhabitants of the tropics and temperate regions 




VIEW OF THE SEA OP GALILEE. 



could not have comprehended the imagery in which the teachings 
of Scripture must have been conveyed. But the small and 
geographically insignificant Land of Palestine combines in itself 
many of the characteristics which belong respectively to the 
cold, the temperate, and the hot regions of the world, so that the 
terms in which the sacred writings are couched are intelligible 
to a very great proportion of the world's inhabitants. 

This being the case, we naturally expect to find that several 
species of the Swallow are uihabitants of Palestine, if so migratory 
a bird can be said to be an inhabitant of any one country. 



THE SWALLOW. 



473 




THE SWALLOW'S FAVOXJKITE HAUNT. 



The chief characteristic of the Swallow, the "bird of free- 
dom," is that it cannot endure captivity, but is forced by instinct 
to pass from one country to another for the purpose of preserving 
itself in a tolerably equable temperature, moving northwards 
as the spring ripens into summer, and southwards as autumn 
begins to sink into winter. By some marvellous instinct it 
traces its way over vast distances, passing over hundreds of 
miles where nothing but the sea is beneath it, and yet at the 
appointed season returning with unerring certainty to the spot 
where it was hatched. How it is guided no one knows, but the 
fact is certain, that Swallows, remarkable for some peculiarity 
by which they could be at once identified, have been observed 
to leave the country on their migration, and to return in the 
following year to the identical nest whence they started. 

Its habit of making its nest among the habitations of mankind 
is mentioned in a well-known passage of the Psalms : " The spar- 
row hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself, where 
she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of Hosts, my 
King and my God " (Ps. Ixxxiv. 3). The Swallow seems in all 
countries to have enjoyed the protection of man, and to have 



474 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

beeu suffered to build in peace under his roof. We find the same 
idea prevalent in the Kew World as well as the Old, and it is 
rather curious that the presence of the bird should so generally 
be thouo:ht to brino^ luck to a house. 

In some parts of our country, a farmer would not dare to kill 
a Swallow or break down its nest, simply because he thinks 
that if he did so his cows would fail to give their due supply 
of milk. The connexion between the milking of a cow in the 
field and the destruction of a Swallow's nest in the house is not 
very easy to see, but nevertheless such is the belief This idea 
ranks with that which asserts the robin and the wren to be the 
male and female of the same species, and to be under some 
special divine protection. 

Whatever may be the origin of this superstition, whether it 
be derived from some forgotten source, or whether it be the 
natural result of the confiding nature of the bird, the Swallow 
enjoys at the present day the protection of man, and builds freely 
in his houses, and even his places of worship. The heathen 
temples, the Mahometan mosques, and the Christian churches 
are alike inhabited by the Swallow, who seems to know hei 
security, and often places her nest where a child might reach it. 

The bird does not, however, restrict itself to the habitations 
of man, though it prefers them ; and in those places where no 
houses are to be found, and yet where insects are plentiful, it 
takes possession of the clefts of rocks, and therein makes its 
nest. Many instances are known where the Swallow has choseu 
the most extraordinary places for its nest. It has been known 
to build year after year on the frame of a picture, between the 
handles of a pair of shears hung on the wall, on a lamp-bracket, 
in a table-drawer, on a door-knocker, and similar strange 
localities. 

The swiftness of flight for which this bird is remarkable is 
noticed by the sacred writers. " As the bird by wandering, as 
the swallt)w by flying, so the curse causeless shall not come" 
(Prov. xxvi. 2). This passage is given rather differently in the 
Jewish Bible, though the general sense remaius the same : 
" As the bird is ready to flee, as the swallow to fly away ; so a 
causeless execration, it shall not come." It is possible, however, 
that this passage may allude rather to the migration than the 
.^wiitness of the bird. 




SWALLOWS AT HOME. 



476 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCEIPTURE 

The "Dukiphatli" of Scripture — Various interpretations of the word — The 
Hoopoe — Its beauty and ill repiitation — The unpleasant odo;ir of its nebt — 
Food of the Hoopoe — Its beautiful nest, and remarkable gestures — A curious 
legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe, 

In tlie two parallel chapters, Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv., there occurs 
the name of a bird which is translated in the Authorized Version, 
Lapwing : " And the stork, the heron after her kind, the lapwing, 
and the bat." 

The Hebrew word is duhiphatJi, and various interpretations 
have been proposed for it, some taking it to be the common 
domestic fowl, others the cock-of-the- woods, or capercailzie, 
while others have preferred to translate it as Hoopoe. The 
Jewish Bible retains the word lapwing, but adds the mark of 
doubt. Commentators are, however, agreed that of all these 
interpretations, that which renders the word as Hoopoe ( Upupa 
ejpojps) is the best. 

There would be no particular object in the prohibition of such 
a bird as the lapwing, or any of its kin, while there would be 
very good reasons for the same injunction with regard to the 
Hoopoe. 

In spite of the beauty of the bird, it has always had rather an 
iU reputation, and, whether in Europe or Asia, its presence 
seems to be regarded by the ignorant with a kind of super- 
stitious aversion. This universal distaste for the Hoopoe is 
probably occasioned by an exceedingly pungent and disagree- 
able odour which fills the nest of the bird, and which infects 
for a considerable time the hand which is employed to take 
the eggs. 

The nest is, moreover, well calculated for retaining any un- 
pleasant smell, being generally made in the hollow of a tree, and 
having therefore but little of that thorough ventilation which is 
found in nearly all nests which are built on boughcj and sprays. 



TITK HOOPOE. 477 

Tiie food of the Hoopoe consists almost entirely of insects 
They have been said to feed on earth-worms ; but this notion 
seems to be a mistaken one, as in captivity they will not touch 
an earth-worm so long as they can procure an insect. Beetles of 
various kinds seem to be their favourite food, and when the 
beetles are tolerably large — say, for example, as large as the 
common cockchafer and dor-beetle — the bird beats them into a 
soft mass before it attempts to eat them. Smaller beetles are 
swallowed without any ceremony. The various boring insects 
which make their home in decaying wood are favourite articles 
of diet with the Hoopoe, which digs them out of the soft wood 
with its long curved beak. 

It has already been mentioned that the nest is usually made 
in the hollow of a tree. In many parts of the country however, 
hollow trees cannot be found, and in that case the Hoopoe resorts 
to*clefts in the rock, or even to holes in old ruins. 

The bird is a peculiarly conspicuous one, not only on account 
of its boldly-barred plumage and its beautiful crest, but by its 
cry and its gestures. It has a way of elevating and depressing 
its crest, and bobbing its head up and down, in a manner which 
could not fail to attract the attention even of the most incurious, 
the whole aspect and expression of the bird varying with the 
raising and depressing of the crest. 

Eespecting this crest there is a curious old legend. As is the 
case with most of the Oriental legends, it introduces the name of 
King Solomon, who, according to Oriental notions, was a mighty 
wizard rather than a wise king, and by means of his seal, on 
which was engraven the mystic symbol of Divinity, held sway 
over the birds, the beasts, the elements, and even over the Jinns 
and Afreets, i.e. the good and evil spirits, which are too ethereal 
for the material world and too gross for the spiritual, and there- 
fore hold the middle place between them. 

On one of his journeys across the desert, Solomon was perish- 
ing from the heat of the sun, when the Hoopoes came to his aid, 
and flew in a dense mass over his head, thus forming a shelter 
from the fiery sunbeams. Grateful for this assistance, the 
monarch told the Hoopoes to ask for a boon, and it should be 
granted to them. The birds, after consulting together, agreed to 
as;k that from that time every Hoopoe should wear a crown 
of gold like Solomon himself. The request was immediately 



m 



stont OF T^E msL^ animals. 



granted, and each Hoopoe found itself adorned wit\i a roya. 
crown. At first, while their honours were new, great was the 
joy of the birds, who paused at every little puddle of water to 
contemplate themselves, bowing their heads over the watery 
mirror so as to display the crown to the best advantage. 

Soon, however, they found cause to repent of their ambition. 
The golden crown became heavy and wearisome to them, and, 
besides, the wealth bestowed on the birds rendered them the 
prey of every fowler. The unfortunate Hoopoes were per- 
secuted in all directions for the sake of their golden crowns 
which they could neither take off nor conceal. 

At last, the few survivors presented themselves before Solo- 
mon, and begged him to rescind his fatal gift, which he did by 
substituting a crest of feathers for the crown of gold. The 
Hoopoe, however, never forgets its former grandeur, and is 
always bowing and bending itself as it used to do when qpn- 
templating its golden crown in the water. 





THE SPARROW. 

Tlie Sparrow upon the house top- 
Architecture of the East— Little 
birds exposed for sale in the mar- 
KASTERN HOUSE-TOP. kct— The two Sparrows sold for n 

farthing-Bird-catching-The net, the snarC; and the trap. 



We have already discussed the signification of the conii)ound 
word tzvppor-deror, and will now take the word tzippor alone. 

Like many other Hebrew terms, the word is evidently used m 
a collective sense, signifying any small bird that is not specially 
designated. In several portions of Scripture it is translated as 
Sparrow, and to that word we will at present restrict ourselves. 

^ 479 



/ 

480 Sl'OMY OF T^E BtniE ANIMALS. 

On turning to Ps. cii. 5-7, we find that the word is used as- ac 
emblem of solitude and misery : " By reason of the voice of my 
groaning, my bones cleave to my skin. 

" I am like a pelican of the wilderness : I am like an owl of 
the desert. 

" I watch, and am as a sparrow alone upon the house-top." 

The word which is here translated as " Sparrow " is tzippor, 
the same which is rendered as " bird " in Lev. xiv. 4. The 
Hebrew Bible more consistently uses the collective term " bird " 
in both instances, and renders the passage as, " I watch, and am 
as a lonely bird upon a roof" 

Now, any one who knows the habits of the Sparrow is per- 
fectly aware that it is a peculiarly sociable bird. It is quarrel- 
some enough with its fellows, and always ready to fight for a 
stray grain or morsel of food ; but it is exceedingly gregarious, 
assembling together in little parties, enlivening the air with its 
merry though unmusical twitterings. 

This cosmopolitan bird is plentiful in the coast towns of 
Palestine, where it haunts the habitations of men with the same 
dauntless confidence which it displays in this country. It is often 
seen upon roofs or house-tops, but is no more apt to sit alone 
in Palestine than it is here. On the contrary, the Sparrows 
collect in great numbers on the house-tops, attracted by the 
abundant supply of food which it finds there. Tliis requires 
some little explanation. 

The house-tops of the East, instead of being gabled and tiled as 
among ourselves, to allow the rain to run off, are quite flat, and 
serve as terraces or promenades in the evening, or even for 
sleeping-places; and from the house-tops proclamations were 
made. See, for example, 1 Sam. ix. 25 : " And when they w^ere 
come down from the high place into the city, Samuel communed 
with Saul upon the top of the house " — this being the ordinary 
place which would be chosen for a conversation. In order to 
keep out the heat of the mid-day sun, tents were sometimes 
pitched upon these flat house-tops. (See 2 Sam. xvi. 22.) Ee- 
ference to the use of the house-tops as places for conversation 
are made in the New Testament. See, for example. Matt. x. 27 : 
" What I teU you in darkness, that speak ye in light ; and what 
ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops." Another 
passage of a similar nature occurs in Luke xii. 3 : " Therefore 



^SE SPABHOW. 481 

whatsoever ye have spoken in darkness shall be heard in the 
light, and that which ye have spoken in the ear in closets shall 
be proclaimed on the house-tops." 

These roofs, instead of being built with sloping rafters like 
those to which we are accustomed in this country, are made 
with great beams of wood laid horizontally, and crossed by 
planks, poles, and brushwood packed tightly together. As this 
roof would not keep out the rain, it is covered with a thick layer 
of clay mixed with straw, and beaten down as hard as possible. 
This covering has constantly to be renewed, as, even in the best 
made roofs, the heavy rains are sure to wash away some portion 
of the clay covering, which has to be patched up with a fresh 
supply of earth. A stone roller is generally kept on the roof of 
each house for the purpose of making a flat and even surface. 

The earth which is used for this purpose is brought from the 
uncultivated ground, and is full of various seeds. As soon as the 
rains fall, these seeds spring up, and afford food to the Sparrows 
and other little birds, who assemble in thousands on the house- 
tops, and then peck away just as they do in our own streets and 
farm-yards. 

It is now evident that the " sparrow alone and melancholy 
upon the house-tops " cannot be the lively, gregarious Sparrow 
which assembles in such numbers on these favourite feeding- 
places. We must therefore look for some other bird, and 
naturalists are now agreed that we may accept the Blue Thrush 
(Petrocossyphus cyaneus) as the particular Tzippor, or small bird, 
which sits alone on the house-tops. 

The colour of this bird is a dark blue, whence it derives its 
popular name. Its habits exactly correspond with the idea of 
solitude and melancholy. The Blue Thrushes never assemble 
in flocks, and it is very rare to see more than a pair together. 
It is fond of sitting on the tops of houses, uttering its note, which, 
however agreeable to itself, is monotonous and melancholy to a 
human ear. 

In connexion with the passage already quoted, "What ye 
hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops," I will take 
the opportunity of explaining the passage itself, which scarcely 
seems relevant to the occasion unless we understand its bearings. 
The context shows that our Lord was speaking of the new doc- 
trines which He had come to teach, and the duty of spreading 

21 



482 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



them, and alludes to a mode of religious teaching which was 
then in vogue. 

The long captivity of the Jews in Babylon had caused the 
Hebrew language to be disused among the common people, who 
had learned the Chaldaic language from their captors. After 
their return to Palestine, the custom of publicly reading the 




EEADING THE LAW TO THE PEOPLE APTEK THE RETURN FROM CAPTTVITT. 



Scriptures was found to be positively useless, the generality of 
the people being ignorant of the Hebrew language. 

Accordingly, the following modification was adopted. The 
roll of the Scriptures was brought out as usual, and the sacred 
words read, or rather chanted. After each passage was read, a 
doctor of the law whispered its meaning into the ear of a Tar- 
gumista or interpreter, who repeated to the people in the Chal- 
daic language the explanation which tlie doctor had whispered 
in Hebrew. The reader will now see how appropriate is the 
metaphor, the whispering in the ear and subsequent proclama- 
tion being the customary mode of imparting religious instruction. 

If the reader will now turn to Matt. x. 29, he will find that 
the word " sparrow " is used in a passage which has become very 
familiar to us. " Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing ? and 
one of them shall not fall on the groimd without vour Father. 



THE SPARROW. 



483 



" But the very hairs of your head are all numbered. 

" Fear ye not therefore, ye are of more value than many 
sparrows." The same sentences are given by St. Luke (xii. 6), in 
almost the same words. 

Now the word which is translated as " Sparrow " is strouthion, 




THE BLUE THRUSH, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE, 



a collective word, signifying a bird of any kind. Without the 
addition of some epithet, it was generally used to signify any 
kind of small bird, though it is occasionally employed to signify 
even so large a creature as an eagle, provided that the bird had 
been mentioned beforehand. Conjoined with the word " great," 
it signifies the ostrich ; and when used in connexion with a word 
significative of running, it is employed as a general term for all 
cursorial birds. 

In the passages above quoted it is used alone, and e\ddently 
signifies any kind of little bird, whether it be a sparrow or not. 
Allusion is made by our Lord to a custom, which has survived 
to the present day, of exposing for sale in the markets the bodies 
of little birds. They are stripped of their feathers, and spitted 
together in rows, and always have a large sale. 



484 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Various birds are sold in this manner, little if any distinction 
being made between them, save perhaps in respect of size, the 
larger species commanding a higher price than the small birds. 
In fact, they are arranged exactly after the manner in which the 
Orientals sell their " kabobs," i.e. little pieces of meat pierced by 
wooden skewers. 

It is evident that to supply such a market it is necessary that 
the birds should be of a tolerably gregarious nature, so that a 
considerable number can be caught at a time. Nets were 
employed for this purpose, and we may safely infer that the 
forms of the nets and the methods of using them were identical 
with those which are employed in the same country at the 
present day. 

The fowlers supply themselves with a large net supported on 
two sticks, and, taking a lantern with them fastened to the top 
of a pole, they sally out at night to the places where the small 
birds sleep. 

Eaising the net on its sticks, they Hft it to the requisite 
height, and hold the lantern exactly opposite to it, so as to place 
the net between the birds and the lantern. The roosting-places 
are then beaten with sticks or pelted with stones, so as to 
awaken the sleeping birds. Startled by the sudden noise, they 
dash from their roosts, instinctively make towards the light, and 
so fall into the net. Bird-catching with nets is several times 
mentioned in the Old Testament, but in the New the net is only 
alluded to as used for taking fish. 

• Beside the net, several other modes of bird-catching were used 
by the ancient Jews, just as is the case at the present day. 
Boys, for example, who catch birds for their own consumption, 
and not for the market, can do so by means of various traps, 
most of which are made on the principle of the noose, or snare. 
Sometimes a great number of hair-nooses are set in places to 
which the birds are decoyed, so that in hopping about many of 
them are sure to become entangled in the snares. Sometimes 
the noose is ingeniously suspended in a narrow passage which 
the birds are Kkely to traverse, and sometimes a simple fall-trap 
is employed. 

We now pass to another division of the subject. In Ps. Ixxxiv. 
1-3, we come upon a passage in which the Sparrow is again 
mentioned : " How amiable are Thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts J 



THE SPARROW. 485 

" My soul lougeth, yea, even fainteth for the courts of the 
Lord ; my heart and my flesh crieth out for the living God. 

" Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a 
nest for herself, where she may lay her young, even Thine altars, 
Lord of hosts, my King, and my God." 

It is evident that we have in this passage a different bird 
from the Sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house-tops ; and 
though the same word, tzvppor, is used in both cases, it is clear 




THK TIIEE-SPARUOW, OR SPAKIIOW OF SCRIPTURE. 

that whereas the former bird was mentioned as an emblem of 
sorrow, solitude, and sadness, the latter is brought forward as an 
image of joy and happiness. " Blessed are they," proceeds the 
Psalmist, " that dweU in Thy house : they will be still praising 
Thee. . . . For a day in Thy courts is better than a thousand. I 
had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to 
dwell in the tents of wickedness." 

According to Mr. Tristram, this is probably one of the species 
to which allusion is made by the Psalmist. While inspecting 
the ruins in the neighbourhood of the Temple, he came upon an 
old wall. " Near this gate I climbed on to the top of the wall, 



486 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



and walked along for some time, enjoying the fine view at the 
gorge of the Kedron, with its harvest crop of little white tombs. 
In a chink I discovered a sparrow's nest {Passer cisalpinus, var.) 
of a species so closely allied to our own that it is difficult 
to distinguish it, one of the very kind of which the Psalmist 
sung. . . . The swallows had departed for the winter, but the 
sparrow has remained pertinaciously through all the sieges and 
changes of Jerusalem." 

The same traveller thinks that the Teee Spakeow (Passer 
montanus) may be the species to which the sacred writer refers, 
as it is even now very plentiful about the neighbourhood of the 
Temple. In all probability we may accept both these birds as 
representatives of the Sparrow which found a home in the 
Temple. The swallow is separately mentioned, possibly because 
its migratory habits rendered it a peculiarly conspicuous bird; 
but it is probable that many species of birds might make their 
nests in a place where they felt themselves secure from dis- 
turbance, and that all these birds would be mentioned under the 
collective and convenient term of Tzipporim. 



I.I 




<> :^7%. 




THE CUCKOO. 

The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture — The common species, and the Great 
Spotted Cuckoo — Depositing the egg. 



Only in two instances is the word Cuckoo found in the Author- 
ized Version of the Bible, and as they occur in parallel passages 
they are practically reduced to one. In Lev. xi. 16 we find it 
mentioned among the birds that might not be eaten, and the 
same pro'hibition is repeated in Deut. xiv. 15, the Jews being 
ordered to hold the bird in abomination. 

It is rather remarkable that the Arabic name for the bird is 
exactly the same as ours, the peculiar cry having supplied the 
name. Its habit of laying its eggs in the nests of other birds 
is well known, together with the curious fact, that althougli so 
large a bird, measuring more than a foot in length, its egg is not 

487 



488 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

larger than that of the little birds, such as the hedge-sparrow, 
robin, or redstart. 

Besides this species, another Cuckoo mhabits Palestine, and 




THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO. 



is much more commoiL This is the G-reat Spotted Cuckoo 
{Oxylojphus glandarius). The birds belonging to this genus have 
been separated from the other Cuckoos because the feathers on 
the head are formed into a bold crest, in some species, such as 
Le Vaillant's Cuckoo, reminding the observer of the crest of the 
cockatoo. This fine bird measures nearly sixteen inches ifl 
length, and can be distinguished, not only by the crested head, 
but by the reddish grey of the throat and chest, and the white 
tips of the wing and tail feathers. 

This species lays its eggs in the nests of comparatively large 
birds, such as the rooks, crows, and magpies ; 




NOAH RECEIVES THE DOVE. 



THE DOVE. 



Parallel between the lamb and the Dove — The Dove and the olive branch — Abram's 
sacrifice, and its acceptance — The Dove-sellers of the Temple — The Rock Dove 
and its multitudes. 

In giving the Scriptural history of the Doves and Pigeons, we 
shall find ourselves rather perplexed in compressing the needM 
information into a reasonable space. There is no bird which 
plays a more important part, both in the Old and the New 
Testaments, or which is employed so largely in metaphor and 
symbol. 

The Doves and Pigeons were to the birds what were the sheep 
and lambs to the animals, and, like them, derived their chief 
interest from their use in sacrifice. Both the lamb and the 
young pigeon being emblems of innocence, both were used on 
similar occasions, the latter being in many instances permitted 
when the former were too expensive for the means of the offerer. 
As to the rendering of the Hebrew words which have been 
translated as Pigeon, Dove, and Turtle Dove, there has nevci 

^.* 489 



490 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

been any discussion. The Hebrew word yondh has always been 
acknowledged to signify the Dove or Pigeon, and the word t&r 
to signify the Turtle Dove. Generally, the two words are used 
in combination, so that tor-yondh signifies the Turtle Dove. 

Though the interpretation of the word yondh is universally 
accepted, there is a little difficulty about its derivation, and its 
signification apart from the bird. Some have thought that it is 
derived from a root signifying warmth, in allusion to the warmth 
of its affection, the Dove having from time immemorial been 
selected as the type of conjugal love. Others, among whom is 
Buxtorf, derive it from a word which signifies oppression, because 
the gentle nature of the Dove, together with its inability to 
defend itself, cause it to be oppressed, not only by man, but by 
many rapacious birds. 

The first passage in which we hear of the D5ve occurs in the 
earlier part of Genesis. Indeed, the Dove and the raven are the 
first two creatures that are mentioned by any definite names, 
the word nachosh, which is translated as " serpent " in Gen. iii. 1, 
being a collective word signifying any kind of serpent, whether 
venomous or otherwise, and not used for the purpose of desig- 
nating any particular species. 

Turning to Gen. viii. 8, we come to the first mention of the 
Dove. The whole passage is too familiar to need quoting, and 
it is only needful to say that the Dove was sent out of the ark 
in order that Noah might learn whether the floods had subsided, 
and that, after she had returned once, he sent her out again 
seven days afterwards, and that she returned, bearing an olive- 
branch (or leaf, in the Jewish Bible). Seven days afterwards he 
sent the Dove for the third time, but she had found rest on the 
earth, and returned no more. 

It is not within the province of this work to treat, except in 
the most superficial manner, of the metaphorical signification of 
the Scriptures. I shaU, therefore, aUude but very shghtly to the 
metaphorical sense of the passages which record the exit from 
the ark and the sacrifice of ISToah. Suffice it to say that, putting 
entirely aside all metaphor, the characters of the raven and the 
Dove are well contrasted. The one went out, and, though the 
trees were at that time submerged, it trusted in its strong wings^ 
and hovered above the w^atery expanse until the flood had sub- 



THE DOVE. 491 

sided. The Dove, on the contrary, fond of the society of man, 
and having none of the wild, predatorial habits which distinguish 
the raven, twice returned to its place of refuge, before it was 
finally able to find a resting-place for its foot. 

After this, we hear nothing of the Dove until the time of 
Abraham, some four hundred years afterwards, when the cove- 
nant was made between the Lord and Abram, when " he believed 
in the Lord, and it was counted to him for righteousness." In 
order to ratify this covenant he was ordered to offer a sacrifice, 
which consisted of a young heifer, a she-goat, a ram, a turtle- 
dove, and a young dove or pigeon. The larger animals were 
severed in two, but the birds were not divided, and between the 
portions of the sacrifice there passed a lamp of fire as a symbol 
of the Divine presence. 

In after days, when the promise that the seed of Abram 
should be as the stars of heaven for multitude had been amply 
fulfilled, together with the prophecy that they should be 
"strangers in a land that was not theirs," and should be in 
slavery and under oppression for many years, the Dove was 
specially mentioned in the new law as one of the creatures that 
were to be sacrificed on certain defined occasions. 

Even the particular mode of offering the Dove was strictly 
defined. See Lev. i. 14 — 17 : " If the burnt sacrifice for his 
offering to the Lord be of fowls, then he shall bring his offering 
of turtle-doves, or of young pigeons. 

" And the priest shall bring it unto the altar, and wring off 
his head, and burn it on the altar ; and the blood thereof shaU 
be wrung out at the side of the altar. 

" And he shall pluck away his crop with his feathers, and cast 
it beside the altar, on the east part, by the place of the ashes. 

" And he shall cleave it with the wings thereof, but shall not 
divide it asunder : and the priest shall burn it upon the altar, 
upon the wood that is upon the fire." 

Here we have a repetition not only of the sacrifice of Abram, 
but of the mode in which it was offered, care being taken that 
the body of the bird should not be divided. There is a slight, 
though not very important variation in one or two portions of 
this passage. For example, the wringing off the head of the 
bird is, literally, pinching off, and had to be done with the 
thumb nail; and the passage which is by some translators ren- 



492 STOBT OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

dered as the crop and the feathers, is by others translated as the 
crop and its contents — a reading which seems to be more con- 
sonant with the usual ceremonial of sacrifice than the other. 

As a general rule, the pigeon was only sanctioned as a sacri- 
ficial animal in case one of more value could not be afforded ; 
and so much care was taken in this respect, that with the 
exception of the two " sparrows " (tzipporim) that were enjoined 
as part of the sacrifice by which the cleansed leper was received 
back among the people (Lev. xiv. 4), no bird might be offered 
in sacrifice unless it belonged to the tribe of pigeons. 

It was in consequence of the poverty of the family that the 
Virgin Mary brought two young pigeons when she came to 
present her new-born Son in the Temple. For those who were 
able to afford it, the required sacrifice was a lamb of the first 
year for a burnt-offering, and a young pigeon or Turtle Dove for 
a sin-offering. But " if she be not able to bring a lamb, then 
she shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, the one for 
the burnt-offering and the other for a sin-offering." The extra- 
ordinary value which all Israelites set upon the first-born son is 
well known, both parents even changing their own names, and 
being called respectively the father and mother of Elias, or 
Joseph, as the case may be. If the parents who had thus 
attained the summit of their wishes possessed a lamb, or could 
have obtained one, they would most certainly have offered it in 
the fulness of their joy, particularly when, as in the case of 
Mary, there was such cause for rejoicing; and the fact that they 
were forced to substitute a second pigeon for the lamb is a proof 
of their extreme poverty. 

While the Israelites were comparatively a small and compact 
nation, dwelling around their tabernacle, the worshippers could 
easily offer their sacrifices, bringing them from their homes 
to the altar. But in process of time, when the nation had 
become a large and scattered one, its members residing at great 
distances, and only coming to the Temple once or twice in the 
year to offer their sacrifices, they would have found that for even 
the poor to carry their pigeons with them would have greatly 
increased the trouble, and in many cases have been almost 
impossible. 

For the sake of convenience, therefore, a number of dealers 
established themselves in the outer courts of the Temple, foi 



THE DOVE. 493 

the purpose of selling Doves to those who came to sacrifice. 
Sheep and oxen were also sold for the same purpose, and, aa 
offerings of money could only be made in the Jewish coinage, 
money-changers established themselves for the purpose of ex- 
changing foreign money brought from a distance for the legal 
Jewish shekel. That these people exceeded their object, and 
endeavoured to overreach the foreign Jews who were ignorant of 
the comparative value of money and goods, is evident from the 




JESUS DRIVES OUT OF THE TEMPLE THE MONEY-CHANGERS AND THOSE "WHO SOLD DOVES. 

fact of their expulsion by our Lord, and the epithets which were 
applied to them. 

According to some old writers, the Dove was considered as 
having a superiority over other birds in the instinctive cer- 
tainty with which it finds its way from one place to another. 
At the present time, our familiarity with the variety of pigeon 
known as the Carrier has taught us that the eye is the real 
means employed by the pigeon for the direction of its flight. 
Those who fly pigeons for long distances always take them 
several times over the same ground, carrying them to an in- 



494 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

creasing distance at every journey, so that the birds shall be 
able to note certain objects which serve them as landmarks. 

Bees and wasps have recourse to a similar plan. When a 
young wasp leaves its nest for the fii-st time, it does not fly away 
at once, but hovers in front of the entrance for some time, getting 
farther and farther away from the nest until it has learned the 
aspect of surrounding objects. The pigeon acts in precisely the 
same manner, and so completely does it depend upon eyesight 




KOCK DOVE. 



that, if a heavy fog should come on, the best-trained pigeon will 
lose its way. 

The old writers, however, made up their minds that the pigeon 
found its way by scent, which sense alone, according to their 
ideas, could guide it ajcross the sea. They were not aware of the 
power possessed by birds of making their eyes telescopic at will, 
or of the enormous increase of range which the sight obtains by 
elevation. A pigeon at the elevation of several hundred yards 
can see to an astonishing distance, and there is no need of 
imagining one sense to receive a peculiar development when the 
ordinary powers of another are sufi6.cient to obtain the object 

That dove-cotes were in use among the earlier Jews is well 
known. An allusion to the custom of keeping pigeons in cotes 



THE DOVE. 



496 




BLUE ROCK PIGEONS. 



is seen in Isa. Ix. 8 : " Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as 
the doves to their windows?" or, as the Jewish Bible translates 
the passage, "as the doves to their apertures?" In this passage 
the sacred writer utters a prophecy concerning the coming of the 
world to the Messiah, the Gentiles flocking to Him as the clouds 
of pigeons fly homeward to their cotes. 

The practice of pigeon-keeping has survived to the present day, 
the houses of wealthy men being furnished with separate pigeon- 
houses for the protection and shelter of these popular birds. 

In the Holy Land are found all the species of Pigeons with 
which we are familiar, together with one or two others. First, 
there is the Rock Pigeon, or Blue Bock Dove, which is ac- 
knowledged to be the origin of our domestic breeds of Pigeons, 
with all their infinite variety of colour and plumage. This 
species, though plentiful in Palestine, is not spread over the 
whole of the land, but lives chiefly on the coast and in the higher 



496 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

parts of the country. In these places it multiplies in amazing 
numbers, its increase being almost wholly unchecked by man, 
on account of the inaccessible cliffs in which it lays its eggs 
and nurtures its young, its only enemies being a few of the birds 
and beasts of prey, which can exercise but a trifling influence 
on these prolific birds. 

Mr. Tristram, while visiting the Wady (or Valley) Seimtin, 
which lies near the Lake of Gennesaret, witnessed an amusing 
example of the vast number of these Pigeons. 

" No description can give an adequate idea of the myriads of 
rock pigeons. In absolute clouds they dashed to and fro in the 
ravine, whirling round with a rush and a whirr that could be felt 
like a gust of wind. It was amusing to watch them upset the 
dignity and the equilibrium of the majestic griffon as they swept 
past him. This enormous bird, quietly sailing along, was quite 
tunned on his back by the sudden rush of wings and wind." 

In Palestine these birds are taken in nets, into which they are 
decoyed by a very efiective though cruel device. 

When one of these birds is trapped or snared, it is seized by 
its capturers, who spare its life for the sake of using it as a decoy. 
They blind it by sewing its eyelids together, and then fasten it 
to a perch among trees. The miserable bird utters plaintive 
cries, and continually flaps its wings, thus attracting others of 
its kind, who settle on the surrounding branches and are easUy 
taken, their whole attention being occupied by the cries of their 
distressed companion. 

We now come to the Turtle Doves, several of which inhabit 
the Holy Land ; but, as they are similar in habits, we will 
confine ourselves to the common species, with which we are so 
familiar in this country. Its migratory habits are noticed in the 
sacred writings. See the following passage in the Song of Sol- 
omon: 

"Lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the 
flowers appear on the earth ; the time of the singing of birds is 
come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land " (Cant. 
ii. 11, 12). The prophet Jeremiah also refers to the migration of 
this bird : " Yea, the stork in -the heaven knoweth her appointed 
times ; and the turtle, and the crane, and the swaUow observe 
the time of their coming ; but my people know not the judgment 
of the Lord " (viii 7). 



THE DOVE. 



497 



Beside this species, there is the Collared Turtle Dove, one variety 
of which is known as the Barbary Dove. It is a large species, 




THE TURTLE DOVE. 



measuring more than a foot in length. Another species is the Palm 
Turtle, so called from its habit of nesting on palm-trees, when it 
is obliged to build at a distance from the habitations of man. It 
is a gregarious bird, several nests being generally found on one 
tree, and even, when it cannot find a palm, it will build among 
the thorns in multitudes. Like the common Dove, it is fond of 
the society of man, and is sure to make its nest among human 
habitations, secure in its knowledge that it will not be disturbed. 
It is rather a small bird, being barely ten inches in length, 
and having no "collar" on the neck, like the two preceding 
species. 




POULTRY. 



Poultry plentifal in Palestine at the present day— The Domestic Fowl nnknown 
in the early times of Israel — The eating and gathering of eggs — References to 
Poultry in the New Testament — The egg and the scorpion — The fatted fowl &1 
Solomon — The hen brooding over her eggs — Poultry prohibited mthia Jeru- 
salem — The cock-crowing. 

At the present day, poultry are plentiful both in Palestine and 
Syria, and that they were bred in the time of the Apostles is 
evident from one or two references which are made by our Lord. 
How long the Domestic Fowl had been known to the Jews is 
extremely uncertain, and we have very little to guide us in 
our search. 

That it was unknown to the Jews during the earlier period 
of their history is evident from the utter silence of the Old 
Testament on the subject. A bird so conspicuous and so plen- 
tiful would certainly have been mentioned in the Law of Moses 
had it been known to the Israelites ; but, in all its minute and 
detailed provisions, the Law is silent on the subject 

Neither the bird itself nor its eggs are mentioned, although 
there are a few references to eggs, without signifying the bird 

498 



POULTRY. 



499 



which laid them. The humane provision in Deut. xxii. 6, 7, refers 
not to a domesticated, but to a wild bird ; " If a bird's nest 
chance to be before thee in any tree, or on the ground, whether 
they be young ones, or eggs, and the dams sitting upon the 
young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the 
young : but thou shalt in any wise let the dam go, and take the 
young to thee ; that it may be well with thee, that thou mayest 
prolong thy days." 




THE DOMESTIC FOWL. 



There is but one passage in the Old Testament which has evei 
been conjectured to refer to the Domestic Fowl. It occurs in 
1 Kings iv. 22, 23: "And Solomon's provision for one day was 
thirty measures of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal, 

"Ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an 
hundred sheep, besides harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and 
fatted fowl." 



500 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



Many persons think that the fatted fowl mentioned in the 
above-quoted passage were really Domestic Fowl, which Solomon 
had introduced into Palestine, together with various other birds 
and animals, by means of his fleet. There may be truth in this 
conjecture, but, as there can be no certainty, we will pass from 
the Old Testament to the New. 

We are all familiar with the passages in which the Domestic 
Fowl is mentioned in the New Testament. There is, for example, 
that touching image employed by our Lord when lamenting over 
Jerusalem : " Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the 
prophets, and stonest them that are sent unto thee ; how often 
would I have gathered thy children together, as a hen doth 
gather her brood under her wings, and ye would not!" The 
reference is evidently made to the Domesticated Fowl, which in 
the time of our Lord was largely bred in the Holy Land. 

Some writers have taken objection to this statement in con- 
sequence of a Eabbinical law which prohibited poultry from 
being kept within the walls of Jerusalem, lest in their search 
for food they should scratch up any impurity which had been 
buried, and so defile the holy city. But it must be remembered 
that in the time of Christ Jerusalem belonged practically to the 
Komans, who held it with a garrison, and who, together with 
other foreigners, would not trouble themselves about any such 
prohibition, which would seem to them, as it does to us, exceed- 
ingly puerile, not to say unjustifiable. 

That the bird was common in the days of our Lord is evident 
from the reference to the " cock-crowing " as a measure of time. 





THE PEACOCK. 



The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon — The word Tucciyim and its varioru 
interpretations — Identity of the word with the Cingalese name of the Peacock 
— Reasons why the Peacock should have been brought to Solomon— Its sub- 
sequent neglect and extirpation. 



Among the many foreign objects wMch were imported by 
Solomon into Palestine, we find that the Peacock is specially 
mentioned. (See a passage which has already been mentioned 
in connexion with ivory and apes.) The sacred historian, after 
mentioning the ivory throne, the golden shields and targets, 
that all the vessels in Solomon's house were of gold, and that 
silver was so common as to be of no account, proceeds to give 
the reason for this profuse magnificence. " For the king had at 
sea a nav}^ of Tharshish with the navy of Hiram : once in three 
years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, 
and apes, and peacocks " (1 Kings x. 22). 

501 



502 STORY OF TEE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

That this magnificent bird should have been one of those 
creatures that were imported by Solomon is almost certain. 
It would be imported for the same reason as the apes ; 
namely, for the purpose of adding to the glories of Solomon's 
house, and no bird could have been selected which would have 
a more magnificent effect than the Peacock. Moreover, although 
unknown in Palestine, it is extremely plentiful in India and 
Ceylon, inhabiting the jungle by thousands, and, by a curious 
coincidence, being invariably most plentiful in those spots which 
are most 'frequented by tigers. In many parts of the country, 
great numbers of Peacocks frequent the temples, and live 
amicably with the sacred monkeys, passing their lives in abso- 
lute security, protected by the sanctity of the place. 

Their numbers, therefore, would render them easily accessible 
to Solomon's envoys, who would purchase them at a cheap rate 
from the native dealers, while their surpassing beauty would 
render them sure of a sale on their arrival in Jerusalem. 
Indeed, their beauty made so great an impression that they are 
separately mentioned by the sacred chronicler, the Peacock and 
the ape being the only two animals that are thought worthy of 
enumeration. 

The Peacock may safely be termed one of the most beautiful 
of the feathered tribe, and may even lay a well-founded claim to 
the chief rank among birds, in splendour of plumage and efful- 
gence of colouring. 

We are so familiar with the Peacock that we think little of its 
real splendour ; but if one of these birds was brought to this 
country for the first time, it would create a greater sensation than 
many animals which are now viewed in menageries with the great- 
est curiosity and interest. 

The train of the male Peacock is the most remarkable feature 
of this beautiful bird ; the feathers composing it are very long, and 
are coloured with green, purple, bronze, gold, and blue in such a 
manner as to form distinct " eyes." 

On the head is a tuft of upright feathers, blackish upon their 
shafts, and rich golden green, shot with blue, on their expanded 
tips. The top of the head, the throat, and neck are the most re- 
fulgent blue, changing in different lights to gold and green. The 
wings are darker than the rest of the plumage, the abdomen black- 
ish, and the feathers of the thighs are fawn. 



504 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



The female is much smaller than her mate, and not nearly so 
beautiful, the train being almost wanting, and the colour ashy- 
brown, with the exception of the throat and neck, which are 
green. 

It seems that after Solomon's death the breed of Peafowl was 
not kept up, owing in all probability to the troubles which beset 
the throne after that magnificent monarch died. 





THE PARTRIDGE. 

The word Kore and its signification — The Partridge upon the mountains — David's 
simile — The Desert Partridge and its habits — Hunting the Partridge with 
sticks — Eggs of the Partridge — Egg-hunting in Palestine — The various spe 
cies of Partridge. 



There is a bird mentioned in the Old Testament, which, although 

its name is only given twice, is a very interesting bird to all 

students of the Scriptures, both passages giving an insight into 

2 2 5'>5 



506 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the maimers and customs of the scarcely changing East. This 
is the bird called in the Hebrew Kore, a word which has been 
generally accepted as signifying some kind of Partridge. There 
is no doubt that, like most other Hebrew names of animated 
beings, the word is a collective one, signifying a considerable 
number of species. 

The first passage occurs in 1 Sam. xxvL 20. When David was 
being pursued by Saul, and had been forced to escape from the 
city and hide himself in the rocky valleys, he compared himself 
to the Partridge, which frequented exactly the same places : 
" The king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when one 
doth hunt a partridge upon the mountains." 

The appositeness of this simile is perfect. The bird to which 
David alluded was in all probability the Desert Partridge 
{Ammoperdix Heyii), a species which especially haunts rocky 
and desert places, and even at the present day is exceedingly 
plentiful about the Cave of AduUam. The males, when they 
think themselves unobserved, are fond of challenging, or 
calling to each other in a loud ringing note, a peculiarity 
that has earned for the bird the Hebrew name of Kore, or 
"the caller." 

It is a very active bird, not taking to flight if it can escape 
by means of its legs, and, when pursued or disturbed, running 
with great swiftness to some rocky cleft in which it may hide 
itself, taking care to interpose, as it runs, stones or other 
obstacles between itself and the object of its alarm. Thus, 
then, it will be seen how close was the parallel between this 
bird and David, who was forced, like the Partridge, to seek for 
refuge in the rocky caves. 

But the parallel becomes even closer when we come to examine 
the full meaning of the passage. The Partridge is at the present 
day hunted on the mountains exactly as was the case in the 
time of David. The usual hunters are boys, who provide them- 
selves with a supply of stout sticks about eighteen inches in 
length, and, armed with these, they chase the birds, hurling the 
sticks one after the other along the ground, so as to strike the 
Partridge as it runs. Generally, several hunters chase the same 
bird, some of them throwing the sticks along the ground, while 
others hurl them just above the bird, so that if it should take to 
flight, it may be struck as it rises into the air. By pertinaciously 



THE PARTRIDGE. 



607 



chasing an individual bird, the hunters tire it, and contrive to 
come so close that they are certain to strike it. 




THE GREEK PARTRIDGE. 



The reader will now see how perfect is the image. Driven 
from the city, David was forced to wander, together with the 
Desert Partridge, upon the hill- sides, and, lik^ that bird, his 
final refuge is the rock. Then came the hunters and pursued 
him, driving him from place to place, as the boys hunt the 
Partridge, until he was weary of his life, and exclaimed in his 
despair, " I shall now perish one day by the hand of SauL" 

The Partridges of Palestine are, like those of our own land, 
exceedingly prolific birds, laying a wonderful number of eggs, 
more than twenty being sometimes found in a single nest. 
These eggs are used for food, and the consumption of them is 
very great, so that many a Partridge has been deprived of her 
expected family : she has sat upon eggs, and hatched them not. 



508 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS, 



Just as hunting the Partridge is an acknowledged sport among 
the inhabitants of the uncultivated parts of Palestine, so is search- 

_^^ ing for the eggs of 
the bird a regular 
business at the prop- 
er time of year. 

Of these birds sev- 
eral species inhabit 
Palestine. There is, 
for example, the Des- 
ert Partridge, which 
has already been 




PARTRIDGES A>'D THEIR yOU>'G. 



mentioned. It is beauti- 
fully, though not brilliant- 
ly coloured, and may be known by the white spot behind the eye, 
the purple and chestnut streaks on the sides, and the orange bill 
and legs. These, however, soon lose their colour after death. 




EASTERN QUAIL. 



THE QUAIL. 

Migration of the Quail — Modes of catching the Quail in the East — The Quail- 
hunters of Northern Africa — Quarrelsome nature of the bird — Quail-fighting in 
the East — How the Quails were brought to the Israelites. 

In one or two parts of the Old Testament is found a word 
which has been translated in the Authorized Version of the 
Bible as Quail. 

The word is seldv, and in every case where it is mentioned it 
is used with reference to the same occurrence ; namely, the pro- 
viding of flesh-meat in the wilderness, where the people could 
find no food. As the passages remarkably bear upon each other, 
it will be advisable to quote them in the order in w^hich they 
come. 

The first mention of the Sclav occurs in Exod. xvi. Only a 
few days after the Israelites had passed the Eed Sea, they began 
to complain of the desert land into which Moses had led them, 
and openly said that they wished they had never left the land 
of their slavery, where they had plenty to eat. According to 

His custom, pitying their narrow-minded and short-sighted folly, 

5oy 



510 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS, 



the natural result of the long servitude to which they had been 
subject, the Lord promised to send both bread and flesh-meat. 

" And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, 

"I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel: 
speak unto them, saying, At even ye shall eat flesh, and in the 




THE QUAIL. 



morning ye shall be filled with bread ; and ye shall know that I 
am the Lord your God. 

"And it came to pass, that at even the quails came up, and 
covered the camp " (ver. 11-13). 

The next passage records a similar circumstance, which 
occurred about a year afterwards, when the Israelites were tired 
of eating nothing but the manna, and again wished themselves 
back in Egypt. "And there went forth a wind from the Lord, 
and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp 



THE QUAIL. 611 

as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's 
journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were 
two cubits high upon the face of the earth. 

" And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, 
and all the next day, and they gathered the quails : he that 
gathered least gathered ten homers ; and they spread them 
all abroad for themselves round about the camp " (Numb. 
xi. 31, 32). 

The last passage in which Quails are mentioned occurs in the 
Psalms. In Ps. cv. are enumerated the various wonders done 
on behalf of the Israelites, and among them is specially men- 
tioned this gift of the Quails and manna. " The people asked, 
and He brought quails, and satisfied them with the bread of 
heaven " (ver. 40). 

" He had commanded the clouds from above, and opened the 
doors of heaven, 

" And had rained down manna upon them to eat, and had 
given them of the corn of heaven. 

*" Man did eat angels' food : He sent them meat to the full. 

" He caused an east wind to blow in the heaven ; and by His 
power He brought in the south wind. 

" He rained flesh also upon them as dust, and feathered fowls 
like as the sand of the sea " (Ps. Ixxviii 23 — 27). 

If the ordinary interpretation of seldv by " Quail " be accepted, 
the des.cription is exactly correct. The Quails fly in vast flocks, 
and, being weak-winged birds, never fly against the direction of 
the wind. They will wait for days until the wind blows in the 
required direction, and will then take wing in countless multi- 
tudes ; so that in an hour or two a spot on which not a Quail 
could be seen is covered with them. 

On account of their short wings, they never rise to any great 
height, even when crossing the sea, while on land they fly at a 
very low elevation, merely skimming over the ground, barely a 
yard or " two cubits high upon the face of the earth." 

Moreover, the flesh of the Quail is peculiarly excellent, and 
would be a great temptation to men who had passed so long a 
time without eating animal food. Another corroboration of the 
identity of the Quail and the Sel^v is to be found in the mode 
in which the flesh is prepared at the present day. As soon as 
the birds have arrived, they are captured in vast multitudes, on 



512 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS, 

account of their weariness. Many are consumed at once, but 
great numbers are preserved for future use by being split and 
laid out to dry in the sun, precisely as the Israelites are said to 
have spread out the Selavim "all abroad for themselves round 
about the camp." 

Accepting, therefore, the Sel§,v and Quail to be identical, we 
may proceed to the description of the bird. 

It is small, plump, and round-bodied, with the head set 
closely on the shoulders. Owing to this peculiarity of form, it 
has its Arab name, which signifies plumpness or fatness. The 
wings are pressed closely to the body, and the tail is pointed, 
very short, and directed downwards, so that it almost appears to 
be absent, and the bird seems to be even more plump than 
reaUy is the case. 

Several modes of capturing these birds are still practised in 
the East, and were probably employed, not only on the two 
occasions mentioned in Exodus and Numbers, but on many 
others of which the Scriptural narrative takes no notice. One 
very simple plan is, for the hunters to select a spot on which the 
birds are assembled, and to ride or walk round them in a large 
circle, or rather in a constantly diminishing spiral. The birds 
are by this process driven closer and closer together, until at the 
last they are packed in such masses that a net can be thrown 
over them, and a great number captured in it. 

Sometimes a party of hunters unite to take the Quails, and 
employ a similar manoeuvre, except that, instead of merely 
walking round the Quails, they approach simultaneously from 
opposite points, and then circle round them until the birds are 
supposed to be sufficiently packed. At a given signal they all 
converge upon the terrified birds, and take them by thousands 
at a time. 

In JSTorthern Africa these birds are captured in a very similar 
fashion. As soon as notice is given that a flight of Quails has 
settled, all the men of the village turn out with their great 
burnouses or cloaks. Making choice of some spot as a centre, 
where a quantity of brushwood grows or is laid down, the men 
surround it on all sides, and move slowly towards it, spreading 
their cloaks in their outstretched hands, and flapping them like 
the wings of huge birds. Indeed, when a man is seen from a 



THE QUAIL. 613 

little distance performing this act, he looks more like a huge bat 
than a human being. 

As the men gradually converge upon the brushwood, the 
Quails naturally run towards it for shelter, and at last they all 
creep under the treacherous shade. Still holding their out- 
spread cloaks in their extended hands, the hunters suddenly run 
to the brushwood, fling their cloaks over it, and so enclose the 
birds in a trap from which they cannot escape. Much care is 
required in this method of hunting, lest the birds should take to 
flight, and so escape. The circle is therefore made of very great 
size, and the men who compose it advance so slowly that the 
Quails prefer to use their legs rather than their wings, and do 
not think of flight until their enemies are so close upon them 
that their safest course appears to be to take refuge in the 
brushwood. 

Boys catch the Quails in various traps and springes, the most 
ingenious of which is a kind of trap, the door of which over- 
balances itself by the weight of the bird. 

By reason of the colour of the Quail, and its inveterate habit 
of keeping close to the groand, it easily escapes observation, and 
even the most practised eye can scarcely distinguish a single 
bird, though there may be hundreds within a very small compass. 
Fortunately for the hunters, and unfortunately for itself, it 
betrays itself by its shrill whistling note, which it frequently 
emits, and which is so peculiar that it will at once direct the 
hunter to his prey. 

This note is at the same time the call of the male to the 
female and a challenge to its own sex. Like all the birds of its 
group, the Quail is very combative, and generally fights a battle 
for the possession of each of its many mates. It is not gifted 
with such weapons of offence as some of its kinsfolk, but it is none 
the less quarrelsome, and fights in its own way as desperately as 
the game-cock of our own country. 

Indeed, in the East, it is used for exactly the same purpose as 
the game-cock. Battles between birds and beasts, not to say 
men, are the common amusement with Oriental potentates, and, 
when they are tired of watching the combats of the larger 
animals, they have Quail-fights in their own chambers. The 
birds are selected for this purpose, and are intentionally fur- 
nished with stimulating food, go as to render them even more 

22* 



514 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

quarrelsome than they would be . by nature. Partridges are 
employed for the same cruel purpose ; and as both these birds 
are easily obtained, and are very pugnacious, they are especially 
suited for the sport. 

Two passages occur in the Scriptures which exactly explain 
the mode in which the Quails were sent to the Israelites. The 
first is in Ps. IxxviiL 26. The Psalmist mentions that the Lord 
*' caused an east wind to blow in the heaven, and by His power 
He brought in the south wind." Here, on examining the geo- 
graphical position of the Israelites, we see exactly how the 
south-east wind would bring the Quails. 

The Israelites had just passed the Eed Sea, and had begun to 
experience a foretaste of the privations which they were to expect 
in the desert through which they had to pass. Passing north- 
wards in their usual migrations, the birds would come to the 
coast of the Eed Sea, and there would wait until a favourable 
wind enabled them to cross the water. The south-east wind 
afforded them just the very assistance which they needed, and 
they would naturally take advantage of it. 

It is remarkable how closely the Scriptural narrative agrees 
with the habits of the Quail, the various passages, when com- 
pared together, precisely coinciding with the character of the 
bird. In Exod. xvi. 13 it is mentioned that "at even the 
quails came up and covered the camp." Nocturnal Jlight is one 
of the characteristics of the Quail. When possible, they in- 
variably fly by night, and in this manner escape many of the 
foes which would make great havoc among their helpless columns 
if they were to fly by day. 

The identity of the Sel^v with the common Quail is now seen 
to be established. In the first place, we have the name still 
surviving in the Arabic language. Next, the various details of 
the Scriptural narrative point so conclusively to the bird, that 
even if we were to put aside the etymological corroboration, we 
could have but little doubt on the subject. There is not a detail 
which is not correct. The gregarious instinct of the bird, which 
induces it to congregate in vast numbers ; its habit of migration ; 
its inability to fly against the wind, and the necessity for it to 
await a favourable breeze ; its practice of flying by night, and its 
custom of merely skimming over the surface of the ground ; the 
ease with which it is captured; the mode of preserving by 



THE QUAIL. 



515 



V 



drying in the sun, and the proverbial delicacy of its flesh, are 
characteristics which all unite in the Quail. 

Before closing our account of the Quail, it will be as well to 
devote a short space to the nature of the mode by which 
the Israelites were twice fed. Commentators who were 
unacquainted with the natural history of the bird have 
represented the Avhole occurrence as a miraculous one, 
and have classed it with the division of the Red Sea 
and of the Jordan, with the various plagues by which 
Pharaoh was induced to release the Israelites, and with 
many other events which we are accus- 
tomed to call miracles. 

In reality, there is scarcely anything of 
a miraculous character about the event, 
and none seems to have been claimed for 
it. The Quails were not created at the 
moment expressly for the purpose of sup- 
plying the people with food, nor were they 
even brought from any great dis- 
tance. They were merely assist- 
ed in the business on which they 
were engaged — namely, their mi- 
gration or customary travel from 
south to north, and waiting on 
the opposite side of the narrow 
sea for a south-east wind. That 
such a wind should blow was no 
miracle. The Quails exj^ected it to blow, and without it they 
could not have crossed the sea. That it was made to blow 
earlier than might have been the case is likely enough, but that 
is the extent of the miraculous character of the event. 




516 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE EAVEN. 

The Raven tribe plentiful in Palestine — The Raven and the Dove — Elijah and the 
Ravens — Desert-loving habits of the Raven — Notions of the old commentators — 
Ceremonial use of the Raven — Return of the Ravens — Cunning of the bird — 
Nesting-places of the Raven — The magpie and its character — The starling — 
Its introduction into Palestine. 

It is more than probable that, while the Hebrew word oreb 
primarily signifies the bird which is so familiar to us under the 
name of Baven, it was also used by the Jews in a much looser 
sense, and served to designate any of the Corvidse, or Crow tribe, 
such as the raven itself, the crow, the rook, the jackdaw, and 
the like. We will first take the word in its restricted sense, and 
then devote a brief space to its more extended signification. 

As might be expected from the cosmopolitan nature of the 
Eaven, it is very plentiful in Palestine, and even at the present 
time is apparently as firmly established as it was in the days 
when the various Scriptural books were written. 

There are few birds which are more distinctly mentioned in 
the Holy Scriptures than the Eaven, though the passages in 
which its name occurs are comparatively few. It is the first bird 
which is mentioned in the Scriptures, its name occurring in 
G-en. viii. 7 : " And it came to pass at the end of forty days 
that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made ; 

" And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro 
until the waters were dried up from off the earth." 

Here we have, at the very outset, a characteristic account of 
the bird. It left the ark, and flew to and fro, evidently for the 
purpose of seeking food. The dove, which immediately followed 
the Eaven, acted in a different manner. She flew from the ark 
in search of food, and, finding none, was forced to return again. 



THE RA VEN. 



517 



The Raven, on the contrary, would find plenty of food in the 
bodies of the various animals that had been drowned, and were 
floating on the surface of the waters, and, therefore, needed not 
to enter again into the ark. The context shows that it made the 
ark a resting-place, and that it " went forth to and fro," or, as 




the Hebrew Bible renders the passage, " in going and returning," 
until the waters had subsided. Here, then, is boldly drawn the 
distinction between the two birds, the carrion-eater and the 
feeder on vegetable substances—a distinction to which allusion 
has already been made in the history of the dove. 

Passing over the declaration in Lev. xi. 15 and Deut. xiv. 14, 
that every Eaven {i.e. the Eaven and all its tribe) is unclean* we 



518 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



come to the next historical mention of the bird. This occurs in 
1 Kings xvii When Elijah had excited the anger of Ahab by 
prophesying three years of drought, he was divinely ordered to 
take refuge by the brook Chcrith, one of the tributaries of the 
Jordan. " And it shall be, that thou shalt drink of the brook ; 
and I have commanded the ravens [orehiml to feed thee there. . 




ELUAH FED BT THE KAVENS. 



"So he went and did according unto the word of the Lord: 
for he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith, that is before 
Jordan. 

" And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morn- 
ing, and bread and flesh in the evening, and he drank of the 
brook." 

In this passage we have a Hstory of a purelv miraculous 



THE RAVEN. 619 

character. It is not one that can be explained away. Some 
have tried to do so by saying that the banished prophet found 
the nests of the Eavens, and took from them daily a supply of 
food for his sustenance. The repetition of the words " bread 
and flesh " shows that the sacred writer had no intention of 
signifying a mere casual finding of food which the Eavens 
brought for their young, but that the prophet was furnished with 
a constant and regular supply of bread and meat twice in the 
day. It is a statement which, if it be not accepted as the 
account of a miracle, must be rejected altogether. 

The desert-loving habit of the Eaven is noticed in Isa. xxxiv. 
11 : "The cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl 
also and the raven shall dwell in it : and He shall stretch out 
upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness." 

We will now pass to the notices of the Eaven as given by 
the writers and commentators of the Talmud. 

Being an unclean bird, and one of ill omen, it was not per- 
mitted to perch on the roof of the Temple. According to some 
writers, it was kept off by means of scarecrows, and according 
to others, by long and sharp iron spikes set so closely together 
that there was no room for the bird to pass between them. The 
latter is by far the more probable account, as the Eaven is much 
too cunning a bird to be deceived by a scarecrow for any length 
of time. It might be alarmed at the first sight of a strange 
object, but in a very short time it would hold all scarecrows in 
supreme contempt. 

Its carrion-eating propensities were well known to the ancient 
writers, who must have had many opportunities of seeing the 
Eaven unite with the vultures in consuming the bodies, not only 
of dead animals, but of warriors killed in battle. So fond was 
the Eaven of this food that, according to those writers, the very 
smell of human blood attracted the bird ; and, if a man acci- 
dentally cut himself, or if he were bled for some illness, the 
odour of the blood would bring round the spot aU the Eavens 
of the place. 

The punctuality with which the Eaven, in common with all 
its kin, returns to its roosting-place, was also familiar to the 
Talmudists, who made rather an ingenious use of this habit 
The ceremonial law of the Jews required the greatest care in 



520 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

observing certain hours, and it was especially necessary to know 
the precise time which marked the separation of one day from 
another. This was ascertained easily enough as long as the day 
was clear, but in case of a dull, murky day, when the course of 
the sun could not be traced, some other plan was needed. 

In the olden times, no artificial means of measuring time were 
known, and the devout Jew was consequently fearful lest he 
might unwittingly break the law by doing on one day an act 
which ought to have been done on another. A convenient 
method for ascertaining the time was, however, employed, and, 
as soon as the Eavens, rooks, and similar birds were seen 
returning to their homes, the sun was supposed to be setting. 

This habit of returning regularly at the same time is men- 
tioned by Mr. Tristram in his " Land of Israel : " — 

''Of all the birds of Jerusalem, the raven is decidedly the 
most characteristic and conspicuous. It is present everywhere 
to eye and ear, and the odours that float around remind us of 
its use. On the evening of our arrival we were perplexed by 
a call-note, quite new to us, mingling with the old familiar 
croak, and soon ascertained that there must be a second species 
of raven along with the common Corvus corax. This was the 
African species (Corvus urribrinus, Hed.), the ashy-necked raven, 
a little smaller than the world-wide raven, and here more 
abundant in individuals. 

" Beside these, the rook (Corvus agricola, Trist.), the common 
grey, or hooded crow (Corvus comix, L.), and the jackdaw 
(Corvus monedula, L.), roost by hundreds in the sanctuary. We 
used to watch them in long lines passing over our tents every 
morning at daybreak, and returning in the evening, the rooks in 
solid phalanx leading the way, and the ravens in loose order 
bringing up the rear, generally far out of shot. Before retiring 
for the night, popular assemblies of the most uproarious cha- 
racter were held together in the trees of the Kedron and Mount 
Olivet, and not imtil sunset did they withdraw in silence, 
mingled indiscriminately, to their roosting-places on the walls. 

"My companions were very anxious to obtain specimens of 
these Jerusalem birds, which could only be approached as they 
settled for the night ; but we were warned by the Consul that 
shooting them so close to the mosque might be deemed a sacrilege 
by the Moslems, and provoke an attack by the guardians of the 



THE RAVEN. 



621 



Haram and the boys of the neighbourhood. They finally deter- 
mined, nevertheless, to run the risk ; and stationing themselves 
just before sunset in convenient hiding-places near the walls, at 
a given signal they fired simultaneously, and, hastily gathering 
up the spoils, had retreated out of reach, and were hurrying to 
the tents before an alarm could be raised. The discharge of ten 
barrels had obtained fourteen specimens, comprising five species. 




ravens' KOOSTlNG-i'LACE. 



"The same manoeuvre was repeated with equal success on 
another evening ; but on the third occasion the ravens had 
learned wisdom by experience, and, sweeping round Siloam, 
chose another route to their dormitory." 

Those who have tried to come within gunshot of a Raven, 



522 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 




can appreciate this anecdote, and can understand how the Raven 
would ever afterwards keep clear of the spot where the flash and 
smoke of fire-arms had tAvice appeared. In a large garden in 
which the sparrows used to congregate, it was a custom of the owner 
to lay a train of corn for the sparrows to eat, and then to rake 
the whole line with a discharge from a gun concealed in an 
outhouse. A tame Raven lived about the premises, and as soon 
as it saw any one carrying a gun towards the fatal outhouse, it 
became much alarmed, and hurried off to hide itself As soon 
as the gun was fired, out came the Raven from its place of con- 
cealment, pounced on one of the dead sparrows, carried it off, 
and ate it in its private haunt. 

The nest to which the Raven returns with such punctuality 
is placed in some spot where it is safe from ordinary intruders. 
The tops of lofty trees are favoured localities for the nest, and 
so are old towers, the interior of caves, and clefts in lofty pre- 
cipices. 



THE OSTRICH. 623 



THE OSTKICH. 



Hebrew words designating the Ostrich — Description of the bird in the Book of Job 
— Ancient use of Ostrich plumes — Supposed heedlessness of eggs and young — 
Mode of depositing the eggs — Hatching them in the sand — Natural enemies 
of the Ostrich — Anecdote of Ostriches and their young — Alleged stupidity of 
the Ostrich — Methods of hunting and snaring the bird — The Ostrich In 
domestication — Speed of the Ostrich — The flesh of the bird prohibited to the 
Jews — Ostrich eggs and their uses — Food of the Ostrich — Mode of drinking— 
Cry of the Ostrich, and reference made to it in Micah. 



There is rather a peculiarity about tlie manner in which this 
bird is mentioned in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures, 
and, unless we go to the original Hebrew, we shall be greatly 
misled. In that version the Ostrich is mentioned only three 
times, but in the Hebrew it occurs eight times. 

The Hebrew word bath-hay a^nahy which is translated in the 
Authorized Version as "owl," ought really to be rendered as 
" Ostrich." Taking this to be the case, we find that there are 
several passages in the Scriptures in which the word has been 
used in the wrong sense. 

In those places, instead of rendering the word as "owl," we 
ought to read it as "Ostrich." 

The first mention of this bird occurs in Lev. xi. 16, and the 
parallel passage of Deut. xiv., in which the Ostrich is reckoned 
anjong the unclean birds, without any notice being given of its 
appearance or habits. 

In the Book of Job, however, we have the Ostrich mentioned 
with that preciseness and fulness of description which is so 
often the case when the writer of that wonderful poem treats 
of living creatures. 

" Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks ? or wings 
and feathers unto the ostrich ? 

" Who leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in 
the dust, 



524 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

" And forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the 
wild beast may break them. 

" She is hardened against her young ones, as though they 
were not hers : her labour is in vain without fear ; 

" Because God hath deprived her of wisdom, neither hath He 
imparted to her understanding. 

" What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the 
horse and his rider." (Job xxxix. 13 — 19.) 

There is rather a peculiarity in the translation of this passage, 
wherein the ' word which has been translated as " peacock " is 
now allowed to be properly rendered as "Ostrich," while the 
word which is translated as " Ostrich " ought to have been given 
as " feathers." The marginal translation gives the last words of 
ver. 13 in a rather different manner, and renders it thus : — 
'•' Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks, or the feathers 
of the stork and ostrich ? " The Hebrew Bible renders- the next 
verses as follows : — 

" She would yet leave her eggs on the earth, and warm them 
in dust ; and forget that the foot may crush them, or that the 
beast of the field may break them. 

" She is hardened against her young ones, for those not hers ; 
being careless, her labour is in vain." 

In the same Book, chap, xxx., is another passage wherein this 
bird is mentioned. " I went mourning without the sun : I stood 
up, and I cried in the congregation. 

"I am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls," or 
Ostriches, in the marginal and correct reading. The Jewish 
Bible also translates the word as Ostriches, but the word which 
the Authorized Version renders as " dragons " it translates as 
"jackals." Of this point we shall have something to say on a 
future page. A somewhat similar passage occurs in Isa. xliii. 
20 : " The beast of the field shall honour me, the dragons and 
the owls" (Ostriches in marginal reading), "because I give 
waters in the wilderness, and rivers in the desert, to give drink 
to My people. My chosen." The Jewish Bible retains the same 
reading, except that the word " dragons " is given with the mark 
of doubt. 

Accepting, therefore, the rendering of the Hebrew as Ostriches, 
let us see how far the passages of Scripture agree with the 
appearance and habits of the bird. 



THE OSTRWH. 626 

Here I may observe that, although in the Scriptures frequent 
allusions are made to the habits of animals, we are not to look 
for scientific exactness to the Scriptures. Among much that is 
strictly and completely true, there are occasional errors, to which 
a most needless attention has been drawn by a certain school of 
critics, who point to them as invalidating the truth of Scripture 
in general The real fact is, that they have no bearing whatever 
on the truth or falsehood of the Scriptural teachings. 

The Scriptures were written at various times, for instruc- 
tion in spiritual and not in temporal matters, and were never 
intended for scientific treatises on astronomy, mathematics, 
zoology, or any such branch of knowledge. The references 
which are made to the last-mentioned subject are in no case of 
a scientific nature, but are always employed by way of metaphor 
or simile, as the reader must have seen in the previous pages. No 
point of doctrine is taught by them, and none depends on them. 

The Spirit which conveyed religious instruction to the people 
could only use the means that existed, and could no more employ 
the scientific knowledge of the present time than use as meta- 
phors the dress, arms, and inventions of the present day. The 
Scriptures were written in Eastern lands for Orientals by 
Orientals, and were consequently adapted to Oriental ideas ; and 
it would be as absurd to look for scientific zoology in the writings 
of an ancient Oriental, as for descriptions of the printing- 
prcuS, the steam-engine, the photographic camera, or the electric 
telegraph. 

So, when we remember that only a few years ago the real 
history of the Ostrich was unknown to those who had made 
zoology the study of their lives, we cannot wonder that it was 
also unknown to those who lived many centuries ago, and who 
had not the least idea of zoology, or any kindred science. 

Still, even with these drawbacks, it is wonderful how accurate 
in many instances were the writers of the Scriptures, and the 
more so when we remember the character of the Oriental mind, 
with its love of metaphor, its disregard of arithmetical pre- 
cision, and its poetical style of thought. 

We will now take the passage in Job xxxix. In ver. 13 
reference is made to the wings and feathers of the Ostrich. If 
the reader will refer to page 310, he will see that the feathers of 
the Ostrich were formerly used as the emblem of rank. In this 



526 STOUY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

case, they are shown as fastened to the heads of the horses, and 
also in the form of a plume, fixed to the end of a staff, and 
appended to a chariot, as emblematical of the princely rank of 
the occupier. In the ancient Egyptian monuments these Ostrich 
plumes are repeatedly shown, and in every case denote very high 
rank. These plumes were therefore held in high estimation at 
the time in which the Book of Job was written, and it is 
evidently in allusion to this fact that the sacred writer has 
mentioned so prominently the white plumes of the Ostrich. 

Passing the next portion of the description, we find that the 
Ostrich is mentioned as a bird that is careless of its eggs, and 
leaves them " in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, and 
forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the wild beast 
may break them." 

Now it is true that the Ostrich is often known to take the 
greatest care of its eggs, the male collecting and sitting on 
them, and watching them with loving assiduity, and by some 
persons this fact has been brought forward as a proof that the 
writer of the Book of Job was mistaken in his statements. A 
further acquaintance with the habits of the bird tells us, how- 
ever, that in those parts of the world which were known to the 
writer of that book the Ostrich does behave in precisely the 
manner which is described by the sacred writer. 

Several females lay their eggs in the same nest, if the title of 
nest can be rightly applied to a mere hollow scooped in the 
sand, and, at least during the daytime, when the sun is shining, 
they simply cover the eggs with sand, so as to conceal them from 
ordinary enemies, and leave them to be hatched by the warm 
sunbeams. They are buried to the depth of about a foot, so 
that they receive the benefit of a tolerably equable warmth. So 
much, then, for the assertion that the Ostrich leaves her eggs 
" in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust." 

We next come to the statement that she forgets that " the foot 
may crush them, or that the wild beast may break them/' It is 
evident from the preceding description that eggs which are 
buried a foot deep in the sand could not be crushed by the foot, 
even were they of a fragile character, instead of being defended 
by a shell as thick, and nearly as hard, as an ordinary earthen- 
ware plate. Neither would the wild beast be likely to discover 
much less to break them. 



THE OSTRICH, 



627 



A more intimate acquaintance with the history of the Ostrich 
shows that, even in this particular, the sacred writer was per- 
fectly correct. Besides the eggs which are intended to he 
hatched, and which are hidden heneath the sand to he hatched, 




OSTRICH AND NEST. 



a number of supplementaiy eggs are laid which are not meant 
to be hatched, and are evidently intended as food for the young 
until they are able to forage for themselves. These are left 
carelessly on the surface of the ground, and may easily be 
crushed by the hoof of a horse, if not by the foot of man. We 
meet, however, with another statement,— namely, that they may 
be broken by the wild beasts. Here we have reference to 
another fact in the history of the Ostricli. The scattered eggs, 



528 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

to whicli allusion is made, are often eaten, not only by beasts, 
but also by birds of prey ; the former breaking the shells by 
knocking them against each other, and the latter by picking up 
large stones in their claws, rising above the eggs, and dropping 
the stones on them. The bird would like to seize the Q§^g, rise 
with it in the air, and drop it on a stone, as mentioned on page 
414, but the round, smooth surface of the Qgg defies the grasp of 
talons, and, instead of dropping the egg upon a stone, it is 
obliged to drop a stone upon the egg. 

Up to the present point, therefore, the writer of the Book of 
Job is shown to be perfectly correct in his statements. We 
will now proceed to verse 16 : " She is hardened against her 
young ones, as though they were not hers." Now in the Jewish 
Bible the passage is rendered rather differently : " She is har- 
dened against her young ones, for those not hers ; " and, as we 
shall presently see, the reading perfectly agrees with the character 
of the Ostrich. 

There has long existed a belief that the Ostrich, contrary to 
the character of all other birds, is careless of her young, neglects 
them, and is even cruel to them. That this notion was shared 
by the writer of the Book of Job is evident from the preceding 
passage. It also prevailed for at least a thousand years after 
the Book of Job was written. See Lam. iv. 3 : "Even the sea 
monsters draw out the breast, they give suck to their young 
ones : the daughter of my people is become cruel, like the 
ostriches in the wilderness." 

It is probable that this idea respecting the cruelty of the 
Ostrich towards its young is derived from the fact that if a flock 
of Ostriches be chased, and among them there be some veiy 
young birds, the latter are left behind by their parents, and fall 
a prey to the hunters. But, in reality, the Ostrich has no choice 
in the matter. The wide sandy desert affords no place of con- 
cealment in which it might hide its young. Nature has not 
furnished it with weapons by means of which it can fight for 
them ; and consequently it is forced to use the only means of 
escape by which it can avoid sacrificing its own life, as well as 
the lives of the young. 

It does not, however, leave the young until it has tried, by all 
means in its power, to save them. For example, it sometimes 
has recourse to the manoeuvre with which we are so familiar in 



THE OSTRICH. 529 

the case of the lapwing, and pretends to be wounded or lamed, 
in order to draw the attention of its pursuers, while its young 
escape in another direction. An instance of this practice is 
given by Mr. Andersson in his " Lake Ngami." " When we had 
proceeded little more than half the distance, and in a part of the 
plain entirely destitute of vegetation, we discovered a male and 
female ostrich, with a brood of young ones, about the size of 
ordinary barn-yard fowls. We forthwith dismounted from our 
oxen, and gave chase, which proved of no ordinary interest. 

" The moment the parent birds became aware of our intention, 
they set off at full speed — the female leading the way, and the 
cock, though at some little distance, bringing up the rear of the 
family party. It was very touching to observe the anxiety the 
birds evinced for the safety of their progeny. Finding that we 
were quickly gaining upon them, the male at once slackened his 
pace and diverged somewhat from his course ; but, seeing that we 
were not to be diverted from our purpose, he again increased his 
speed, and, with wings drooping so as almost to touch the ground, 
he hovered round us, now in wide circles, and then decreasing 
the circumference until he came almost within pistol-shot, when 
he abruptly threw himself on the ground, and struggled despe- 
rately to regain his legs, as it appeared, like a bird that has been 
badly wounded. 

" Having previously fired at him, I really thought he was dis- 
abled, and made quickly towards him. But this was only a 
ruse on his part, for, on my nearer approach, he slowly rose, and 
began to run in a different direction to that of the female, who 
by this time was considerably ahead with her charge." Nor is 
this a solitary instance of the care which the Ostrich will take of 
her young. Thunberg mentions that on one occasion, w^hen he 
happened to ride near a place where an Ostrich was sitting on 
the eggs, the bird jumped up and pursued him, evidently with 
the object of distracting his attention from the eggs. When he 
faced her, she retreated ; but as soon as he turned his horse, she 
pursued him afresh. 

The care of the mother for the young is perhaps less needed 
with the Ostrich than with most birds. The young are able to 
run with such speed that ordinary animals are not able to over- 
take them, and, besides, they are protected by their colour as 
long as they are comparatively helpless. Their downy plumage 
23 



530 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

harmonizes completely with the sandy and stony ground, even 

when they run, and when they crouch to the earth, as is their 
manner when alarmed, even the most practised eye can scarcely 
see them. Mr. Andersson, an experienced hunter, states that 
when the Ostrich chicks were crouching almost under his feet, 
he had the greatest difficulty in distinguishing their forms. 

Owing to the great number of the eggs that are laid, the young 
are often very numerous, between thirty and forty chicks some- 
times belonging to one brood. In the Ostrich chase which has 
already been described, the brood were eighteen in number, and 
so great was their speed that, in spite of their youth and diminu- 
tive size, Mr. Andersson only succeeded in capturing nine of 
them after an hour's severe chase. 

We find, therefore, that we must acquit the Ostrich of neglect- 
ing its young, much more of cruelty towards them ; and we will 
now turn to the next charge against the bird, that of stupidity. 

In one sense, the bird certaiuly may be considered stupid. 
Like nearly all wild creatures which live on large plains, it 
always runs against the wind, so as to perceive by scent if any 
enemies are approaching. Its nostrils are very sensitive, and 
can detect a human being at a very great distance. So fastidious 
is it in this respect, that no hunter who knows his business ever 
attempts to approach the Ostrich except from leeward. If a 
nest is found, and the discoverer wishes the birds to continue 
laying in it, he approaches on the leeward side, and rakes out 
the eggs with a long stick. 

The little Bushman, who kills so many of these birds with 
his tiny bow and arrow, makes use of this instinct when he goes 
to shoot the Ostrich, disguised in a skin of one of the birds. 
Should an Ostrich attack him, as is sometimes the case, he only 
shifts his position to windward, so as to aUow the birds to catch 
the scent of a human being, when they instantly make off in 
terror. 

When, therefore, the Ostriches are alarmed, they always run 
to windward, instinctively knowing that, if an enemy should 
approach in that direction, their powers of scent will inform 
them of the danger. Being aware of this habit, the hunters 
manage so that while one of them goes round by a long detour 
to frighten the game, the others are in waitiug at a considerable 
distance to windward, but well on one side, so that no iadication 



THE n.'HTRlCH. 531 

of their presence may reach the sensitive nostrils of fche birds. 
As soon as the concealed hunters see the Ostriches fairly settled 
down to their course, they dash off at right angles to the line 
which the birds are taking, and in this way come near enough 
to use their weapons. The antelopes of the same country have 
a similar instinct, and are hunted in precisely the same manner. 

Thus, then, in one sense the Ostrich may be considered as 
open to the charge of stupidity, inasmuch as it pursues a course 
which can be anticipated by enemies who would otherwise be 
unable to overtake it. But it must be remembered that instinct 
cannot be expected to prove a match for reason, and that, 
although its human enemies are able to overreach it, no others 
can do so, the instinct of running against the wind serving to 
guard it from any foe which it is likely to meet in the desert. 

When captured alive and tamed, it certainly displays no par- 
ticular amount of intellect. The Arabs often keep tame Ostriches 
about their tents, the birds being as much accustomed to their 
quarters as the horses. In all probability they did so in ancient 
times, and the author of the Book of Job was likely to be 
familiar with tame Ostriches, as well as with the wild bird. 

Stupidity is probably attributed to the tame bird in conse- 
quence of the habit possessed by the Ostrich of picking up and 
eating substances which cannot be used as food. For example, 
it will eat knives, bits of bone or metal, and has even been 
known to swallow bullets hot from the mould. On dissecting 
the digestive organs of an Ostrich, I have found a large quantity 
of stones, pieces of brick, and scraps of w^ood. These articles 
are, however, not intended to serve as food, but simply to aid 
digestion, and the bird eats them just as domestic fowls pick up 
gravel, and smaller birds grains of sand. In swallowing them, 
therefore, the Ostrich does not display any stupidity, but merely 
obeys a natural instinct. 

Lastly, we come to the speed of the Ostrich : " What time 
she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his 
rider." 

This statement is literally true. When the Ostrich puts forth 
its full speed, there is no horse that can catch it in a fair chase. 
It may be killed by the ruse which has already been described, 
but an adult Ostrich can run away from the swiftest horse. 
When it runs at full speed, it moves its long legs with astonishing 



532 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS 

rapidity, covering at each stride an average of twenty-four 
feet, a fact from which its rate of speed may be deduced- In 
consequence of this width of stride, and the small impression 
made in the sand by the two-toed foot, the track of a running 
Ostrich is very obscure. Perhaps no bettei proof of the swift- 
ness of the bird can be given than the extreme value set upon 
it by the Arabs. Although they are bred to the desert as much 
as the Ostrich itself, and are mounted on horses whose swiftness 
and endurance are proverbial, they set a very high value on the 
Ostrich, and to have captured one of these birds establishes an 
Arab's fame as a hunter. 

Sometimes the Arabs employ the plan of cutting across the 
course of the bird, but at others they pursue it in fair chase, 
training their horses and themselves specially for the occasion. 
They furnish themselves with a supply of water, and then start 
in pursuit of the first flock of Ostriches they find. They take 
care not to alarm the birds, lest they should put out their full 
speed and run away out of sight, but just keep sufficiently near 
to force the birds to be continually on the move. They will 
sometimes continue this chase for several days, not allowing 
their game time to eat or rest, until at last it is so tired that it 
yields itself an easy prey. 

In Southern Africa, snares are used for taking the Ostrich. 
They are in fact ordinary springes, but of strength suitable to the 
size of the bird. The cord is made fast to a sapling, which is 
bent down by main strength, and the other end is then formed 
into a noose and fastened down with a trigger. Sometimes the 
bird is enticed towards the snare by means of a bait, and some- 
times it is driven over it by the huntsmen. In either case, as 
soon as the Ostrich puts its foot within the fatal noose, the 
trigger is loosed, the sapling is released, and, with a violent jerk, 
the Ostrich is caught by the leg and suspended in the air. 

Why the flesh of the Ostrich should have been prohibited to 
the Jews is rather a mystery. It is much valued by most 
natives, though some of the Arab tribes stiU adhere to the 
Jewish prohibition, and those Europeans who have tried it pro- 
nounce it to be excellent when the bird is young and tender, but 
to be unplea^ntly tough when it is old. Mr. Andersson says 
that its flesh resembles that of the zebra, and mentions that the 
tat and blood are in great request, being mixed together l^y 




AliAliS JH'NTING THE OSTRICH. 



534 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

cutting the tliroat of the bird, passiag a ligature round the neck 
just below the incision, and then shaking and dragging the bird 
about for some time. Nearly twenty pounds of this substance 
are obtained from a single Ostrich. 

The ancient Eomans valued exceedingly the flesh of this bird. 
We are told that Heliogabalus once had a dish served at his 
table containing six hundred Ostrich braias, and that another 
emperor ate a whole Ostrich at a meal. As an adult Ostrich 
weighs some three hundred and fifty pounds, we may presume that 
the bird in question was a young one. 

The eggs are most valuable articles of food, both on account of 
their excellent flavour and their enormous size. It is calculated 
that one Ostrich ^gg contains as much as twenty-five ordinary 
hen's eggs. Cooking the Ostrich Qgg is easily performed. A 
hole is made in the upper part of the egg, and the lower end is 
set on the fire. A forked stick is then introduced into the Qgg, 
and twirled between the hands, so as to beat up the whole of 
the interior. Europeans usually add pepper and salt, and 
say that this simple mode of cooking produces an excellent 
omelette. 

The ordinary food of the Ostrich consists of the seeds, buds, 
and tops of various plants. It seems strange, however, that in 
the deserts, where there is so little vegetation, the bird should be 
able to procure sufficient food to maintain its enormous body. 
Each of the specimens which are kept at the Zoological Gardens 
eats on an average a pint of barley, the same quantity of oats, 
four pounds' weight of cabbage, and half a gallon of chaff, 
beside the buns, bread, and other articles of food which are 
given to them by visitors. 

Although the Ostrich, Like many other inhabitants of the 
desert, can live for a long time without water, yet it is forced to 
drink, and like the camel, which it resembles in so many of its 
ways, drinks enormously, taking in the water by a succession 
of gulps. When the weather has been exceptionally hot, the 
Ostrich visits the water-springs daily, and is so occupied iu 
quenching its thirst that it will allow the hunter to come within 
a very short distance. It appears, indeed, to be almost iutoxi- 
cated with its draught, and, even when it does take the alarm, it 
only retreats step by step, instead of scudding off with its 
usually rapid strides. 



THE OSTRICH. 635 

The camel-like appearance of the Ostrich has already beeu 
mentioned. In the Arabic language the Ostrich is called by a 
name which signifies camel-bird, and many of the people have 
an idea that it was originally a cross between a bird and a 
camel. 

The cry of the Ostrich is a deep bellow, which, according to 
travellers in Southern Africa, so resembles the roar of the lion 
that even the practised ears of the natives can scarcely distin- 
guish the roar of the animal from the cry of the bird. The re- 
semblance is increased by the fact that both the lion and Ostrich 
utter their cry by night. It is evidently to this cry that the 
prophet Micah alludes : " Therefore I will wail and howl, I 
win go stripped and naked: I wiU make a wailing like the 
dragons, and mourning as the owls " (Ostriches in marginal read- 
ing). The cry of the variety of Ostrich which inhabits Northern 
Africa is said to bear more resemblance to the lowing of an ox 
than the roar of the lion ; but as the bird is smaller than its 
southern relative, the difference is probably accounted for. 

It has been mentioned that the Ostrich has no weapons 
wherewith to fight for its young ; still, though it be destitute of 
actual weapons, such as the spur of the gamecock or the beak 
and talons of the eagle, it is not entirely defenceless. Its long 
and powerful legs can be employed as weapons, and it can kick 
with such force that a man would go down before the blow, and 
probably, if struck on the leg or arm, have the limb broken. 
The blow is never delivered backward, as is the kick of the 
horse, but forward, like that of the kangaroo. The natives of 
the (countries where it resides say that it is able to kill by its kick 
the jackal that comes to steal its eggs, and that even the hyaena 
and the leopard are repelled by the gigantic bird. 







THE BITTERN. 

The Bittern and its general appearance— The bird of solitude— Difficulty of detect-- 
ing the Bittern in its haunts — Mudie's description of the Bittern and its home 
— Nest of the Bittern — Scarcity of the bird at the present day — Food of the 
Bittern. 



The Bittern belongs to the same family as the herons, the 
cranes, and the storks, and has many of the habits common to 
them all. It is, however, essentially a bird of solitude, hating 
the vicinity of man, and living in the most retired spots of 
marshy ground. As it sits among the reeds and rushes, though 
it is a large bird, it is scarcely visible even to a practised eye, its 
mottled plumage harmonizing with surrounding objects in such a 
way that the feathers of the bird can scarcely be distinguished 
from the sticks, stones, and grass tufts among which it sits. The 
ground colour of the plumage is dark buff, upon which are 
sprinkled mottlings and streaks of black, chestnut, grey, and 
browTi. These mottled marks harmonize with the stones and 
tufts of withered grass, while the longitudinal dashes of buff 
and black on the neck and breast correspond with the sticks and 
reeds. 

In a similar manner the tiger, though so large an animal, can 
lie in a very small covert of reeds without being detected, its 
striped fur corresponding with the reeds themselves and the 
shadows thrown by them ; and the leopard can remain hidden 

536 



THE BITTERN. 



637 



among the boughs of a tree, its spotted coat harmonizing with 
the broken light and shade of the foliage. 

The following powerful description of the Bittern's home is 
given by Mudie : " It is a bird of rude nature, where the land 
knows no character save that which the untrained, working of 
the elements impresses upon it ; so that when any locality is in 




THK BITTEKN 



the course of being won to usefulness, the bittern is the first to 

depart, and when any one is abandoned, it is the last to retiirn, 

' The bittern shall dwell there ' is the final curse, and implies 

that the place is to become uninhabited and uninhabitable. It 

hears not the whistle of the ploughman, nor the sound of the 

mattock ; and the tinkle of the sheep-bell, or the lowing. of the 

ox 'although the latter bears so much resemblance to its owl 
23* 



538 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

hollow and dismal voice, that it has given foundation to the 
name), is a signal for it to be gone. 

" Extensive and dingy pools — if moderately upland, so much 
the better — which lie in the hollows, catching, like so many 
traps, the lighter and more fertile mould which the rains wash 
and the winds blow from the naked heights around, and con- 
verting it into harsh and dingy vegetation, and the pasture of 
those loathsome things which wriggle in the ooze, or crawl and 
swim in the putrid and mantling waters, are the habitation of 
the bittern. 

" Places which scatter blight and mildew over every herb 
which is more delicate than a sedge, a carex, or a rush, and 
consume every wooded plant that is taller than the sapless and 
tasteless cranberry or the weeping upland willow ; which shed 
murrain over the quadrupeds, chills which eat the flesh off their 
bones, and which, if man ventures there, consume him by putrid 
fever in the hot and dry season, and shake him to pieces with 
ague when the weather is cold and humid. 

" Places from which the heath and the lichen stand aloof, and 
where even the raven, lover of disease, and battener upon all 
that expires miserably and exhausted, comes rarely and with 
more than wonted caution, lest that death which he comes to 
seal and riot upon in others should unawares come upon him- 
self The raven loves carrion on the dry and unpoisoniug moor 
scents it from afar, and hastens to it upon his best and boldest 
wing ; but ' the reek o' the rotten fen * is loathsome to the sense 
of e"ven the raven, and it is hunger's last pinch ere he come nigh 
to the chosen habitation, the only loved abode, of the bittern." 

Secure in its retreat, the Bittern keeps its place even if a 
sportsman should pass by the spot on which it crouches. It 
will not be tempted to leave its retreat by noise, or even by stone 
throwing, for it knows instinctively that the quaking bogland 
which it selects as its home is unsafe for the step of man. 

The very cry of the Bittern adds to this atmosphere of deso- 
lation. By day the bird is silent, but after the sun has gone 
down it utters its strange wild cry, a sound which exactly suits 
the localities in which it loves to make its habitation. During 
part of the year it only emits a sharp, harsh cry as it rises on 
the wing, but during the breeding season it utters the cry by 
77hich it summons its mate, one of the strangest love-calls that 




BITTERN. 



COKAIOKANT. 



540 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

can be imagined. It is something between the neighing of a 
horse, the bellow of a bull, and a shriek of savage laughter. It 
is very loud and deep, so that it seems to shake the loose and 
marshy ground. There was formerly an idea that, when the 
Bittern uttered this booming cry, it thrust its bill into the soft 
ground, and so caused it to shake. In reality, the cry is uttered 
on the wing, the bird wheeling in a spiral flight, and modulating 
its voice in accordance with the curves which it describes in 
the air. This strange sound is only uttered by the male bird. 

Like most of the long-legged wading birds, the Bittern is able 
to change its shape, and apparently to alter its size, in an asto- 
nishing manner. When it is walking over the ground, with 
head erect and eye glanced vigilantly at surrounding objects, it 
looks a large, bold, vigorous, and active bird. Next minute it 
will sink its head in its shoulders, so that the long beak seems to 
project from them, and the neck totally disappears, the feathers 
enveloping each other as perfectly and smoothly as if it never 
had had a neck. In this attitude it will stand for an hour at a 
time on one leg, with the other drawn close to its body, looking 
as dull, inert, and sluggish a bird as can well be imagined, and 
reduced apparently to one half of its former size. The Bittern 
is represented in one of its extraordinary attitudes on the plate 
which illustrates the cormorant. 

The nest of the Bittern is placed on the ground, and near the 
water, though the bird always takes care to build it on an 
elevated spot which will not be flooded if the water should rise 
by reason of a severe rain. There is, however, but Httle reason 
for the Bittern to fear a flood, as at the time of year which is 
chosen for nest-building the floods are generally out, and the 
water higher than is likely to be the case for the rest of the 
year. The materials of the nest are found in marshes, and 
consist of leaves, reeds, and rushes. 

As if to add to the general effect of its character, it is essen- 
tially 11 solitary bird, and in this characteristic entirely unlike its 
relatives the heron and the stork, which are peculiarly sociable, 
and love to gather themselves together in multitudes. But the 
Bittern is never found except alone, or at the most accompanied 
for a time by its mate and one or two young ones. 

The localities in which it resides are sufficient evidence of 
the nature of its food. Trogs appear to be its favourite diet, but 



THE BITTERN. 



641 



it also feeds on various fish, insects, molluscs, worms, and similar 
creatures. Dull and apathetic as it appears to be, it can display 
sufficient energy to capture tolerably large lish. Though the 
Bittern is only about two feet in total length, one of these birds 
was killed, in the stomach of which were found one perfect rudd 
eight inches in length and two in depth, together with the re- 
mains of another fish, of a full-grown frog, and of an aquatic 
insect- In another instance, a Bittern had contrived to swallow 
an eel as long as itself; while in many cases the remains of five 
or six full-grown frogs have been found in the interior of the 
bird, some just swallowed, and others in various stages of 
digestion. 



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THE HERON. 



THE HERON. 



The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird — Nesting of the Heron — The papyrus 
marshes and their dangers — Description of the papyrus — Vessels of bulrushes. 

The name of the Heron is only mentioned twice in the Scrip- 
tures — namely, in the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. 19 and 
Deut. xiv. 18 ; in both of which places the Heron is ranked 
among the unclean birds that might not be eaten. 

In some of the cases where beasts or birds are prohibited as 
food, the prohibition seems scarcely needed. To us of the 
present day this seems to be the case with the Heron, as it 
is never brought to table. The reason for this disuse of the 
Heron as food is not that it is unfit for the table, but that it 
has become so scarce by the spread of cultivation and house- 
building, that it has been gradually abandoned as a practically 
unattainable article of diet. The flesh of the Heron, like that 
of the bittern, is remarkably excellent, and in the former days, 
when it was comparatively plentiful, and falconry was the ordi- 
Qary amusement of the rich, the Heron formed a very important 
dish at every great banquet. 

542 



THE HERON. 



543 



The bird, however, must be eaten when young. A gentleman 
Avho liked to try experiments for himself in the matter of food, 
found that, if /oung Herons were properly cooked, they formed 
a most excellent dish, equal, in his opinion, to grouse. AVishing 




THE HERON. 



to have his own judgment confirmed by that of others, he 
had several of them trussed and dressed like wild geese, and 
served up at table under that name. The guests approved 
greatly of the bird, and compared it to hare, the resemblance 
being further increased by the dark colour of the flesh. There 
was not the slighest fishy flavour about the bird. This, how- 
ever, is apt to be found in the older birds, but can be removed 



544 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

by burying them in the earth for several days, just as is done 
with the solan goose and one or two other sea-birds. 

The abundance of birds belonging to the HerC>n tribe is well 
shown by some of the paintings and carvings on Egyptian 
monuments, in which various species of Herons and other 
water-birds are depicted as living among the papyrus reeds, 
exactly the locality in which they are most plentiful at the 
present day. 

Unlike the bittern, the Heron is a most sociable bird, and 
loves not only to live, but even to feed, in company with others 
of its own species. 

I have watched the Herons feeding in close proximity to each 
other. The birds were fond of wading stealthily along the edge 
of the lake until they came to a suitable spot, where they would 
stand immersed in the water up to the thighs, waiting patiently 
for their prey. They stood as stiU as if they were carved out 
of w^ood, the ripples of the lake reflected on their plumage as 
the breeze ruffled the surface of the water. Suddenly there 
would be a quick dive of the beak, either among the reeds or in 
the water, and each stroke signified that the Heron had caught 
its prey. 

Erogs and small fishes are the usual food of the Heron, though 
it often grapples with larger prey, having been seen to capture 
an eel of considerable size in its beak. Under such circum- 
stances it leaves the water, with the fish in its mouth, and beats 
it violently against a stone so as to kill it. Now and then the 
bird is vanquished in the struggle by the fish, several instances 
being known in which an eel, in its endeavours to escape, has 
twisted itself so tightly round the neck of the bird that both 
have been found lying dead on the shore. 

In one such case the Heron's beak had struck through the 
eyes of the eel, so that the bird could not disengage itself In 
another the Heron had tried to swallow an eel which was 
much too large for it, and had been nearly choked by its 
meal. The eel must necessarily have been a very large one, 
as the Heron has a wonderful capacity for devouring fish. Even 
when quite young, it can swallow a fish as large as a herring, 
and when it is full grown it will eat four or five large herrings 
at a meal. 

Now when we remember that a man of average appetite 




THE HOME OF THE HERON. 



546 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

finds one herring to form a very sufficient breakfast, we can 
easily imagine what must be the digestive power of a bird 
which, though very inferior to man in point of bulk, can 
eat four times as much at a meal. Even though the fish be 
much larger in diameter than the neck of the bird, the Heron 
can swallow it as easily as a small snake swallows a large 
frog. The neck merely seems to expand as if it were made of 
Indiarubber, the fish slips down, and the bird is ready for 
another. 

Generally the Herons feed after sunset, but I have frequently 
seen them busily engaged in catching their prey in full day- 
light, when the sunbeams were playing in the water so as to 
produce the beautiful rippling effect on the Heron's plumage 
which has already been mentioned. 

The Heron does not restrict itself to fishes or reptiles, but, 
like the bittern, feeds on almost any kind of aquatic animal 
which comes within its reach. When it lives near tidal rivers, 
it feeds largely on the shrimps, prawns, green crabs, and 
various other Crustacea; and when it lives far inland, it stHl 
makes prey of the fresh-water shrimps, the water-beetles, and 
the boat-flies, and similar aquatic creatures. In fact, it acts 
much after the fashion of the lions, tigers, and leopards, 
which put up with locusts and beetles when they can find no 
larger prey. 

The long beak of the Heron is not merely an instrument by 
which it can obtain food, but is also a weapon of considerable 
power. When attacked, it aims a blow at the eye of its oppo- 
nent, and makes the stroke with such rapidity that tho foe is 
generally blinded before perceiving the danger. When domes- 
ticated, it has been known to keep possession of the enclosure in 
which it lived, and soon to drive away dogs by the power of its 
beak. When it is young, it is quite helpless, its very long legs 
being unable to support its body, which is entirely bare of 
plumage, and has a very unprepossessing appearance. 

The flight of the Heron is very powerful, its wings being very 
large in proportion to its slender body. Sometimes the bird 
takes to ascending in a spiral line, and then the flight is as 
beautiful as it is strong. When chased by the falcon it mostly 
ascends in this manner, each of the two birds trying to rise 
above the other. 



THE HERON. 647 

The nest of the Heron is always made on the top of some 
lofty tree, whenever the bird builds in places where trees can be 
found ; and as the bird is an eminently sociable one, a single 
nest is very seldom found, the Heron being as fond of society as 
the rook. In some parts of Palestine, however, where trees are 
very scarce, the Heron is obliged to choose some other locality for 
its nest, and in that case prefers the great thickets of papyrus 
reeds which are found in the marshes, and which are even more 
inaccessible than the tops of trees. 

One of these marshes is well described by Mr. Tristram in his 
" Land of Israel." " The whole marsh is marked in the map as 
impassable ; and most truly it is so. I never anywhere have met 
with a swamp so vast and utterly impenetrable. 

" The papyrus extends right across to the east side. A false 
step off its roots will tal^e the intruder over head in suffocating 
peat-mud. We spent a long time in attempting to effect an 
entrance, and at last gave it up, satisfied that the marsh birds 
were not to be had. In fact, the whole is simply a floating bog of 
several miles square ; a very thin crust of vegetation covers an 
unknown depth of water ; and, if the explorer breaks through 
this, suffocation is imminent. Some of the Arabs, who were 
tilling the plain for cotton, assured us that even a wild boar 
never got through it. We shot two bitterns, but in endeavouring 
to retrieve them I slipped from the root on which I was stand- 
ing, and was drawn down in a moment, only saving myself from 
drowning by my gun, which had providentially caught across a 
papyrus stem." 

It may here be mentioned that the bulrush of Scripture is 
undoubtedly the papyrus. The ark or basket of bulrushes, lined 
with slime and pitch, in which Moses was laid, was made of 
the papyrus, which at the present day is used for the manufac- 
ture of baskets, mats, sandals, and for the thatching of houses. 
Many tribes which inhabit the banks of the Mle make simple 
boats, or rather rafts, of the papyrus, which they cut and tie in 
bundles ; and it is worthy of notice that the Australian native 
makes a reed boat in almost exactly the same manner. 

Compare Is. xviii. 1, 2 : " Woe to the land shadowing with 
wings, which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia. 

"That sendeth ambassadors by the sea, even in vessels of 
bulrushes." Did we not know that vessels are actually made of 



548 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

bulrushes at the present day, a custom which has survived from 
very ancient times, we might find a difficulty in understanding 
this passage, while the meaning is intelligible enough when it is 
viewed by the light of the knowledge that the Ethiopian of the 
present day takes gold, and ivory, and other merchandise down 
the Nile in his boat of papyrus (or bulrush) reeds tied together. 
The papyrus runs from ten to fifteen or sixteen feet in height, 
so that the Herons are at no loss for suitable spots whereon to 
place their nests. From the name "papyrus" our word paper 
is derived. The stems of the plant, after having been split into 




THE PAPYRUS PLANT. 



thin slices, joined together, and brought to a smooth surface, 
formed the paper upon which the ancient Egyptians wrote. 

The Egrets, which are probably included under the generic 
title of Andphah, are birds of passage, and at the proper season 
are plentiful in Palestine. These pretty birds much resemble 
the heron in general form, and in general habits both birds are 
very much alike, haunting the marshes and edges of lakes and 
streams, and feeding upon the frogs and other inhabitants of the 
water. In countries where rice is cultivated, the Egret may 
generally be seen in the artificial swamps in which that plant is 
sown. The colour of the Egret is pure white, with the exception 
of the train. This consists of a great number of long slender 
feathers of a delicate straw colour. Like those which form the 
train of the peacock, they fall over the feathers of the tail, and 
entirely conceal them. 




THE CRANE. 

Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned — Its migratory habits, and loud 
voice — Geographical range of the Crane — Its favourite roosting-placcs — Size of 
the Crane, and measurement of the wings — The Crane once used as food — Plumes 
of the Crane and their use — Structure of the vocal organs — Nest and eggs of 
the Crane. 



In the description of the dove and the swallow two passages 
have been quoted in which the name of the Crane is men- 
tioned, one referring to its voice, and the other to its migratory 
instinct. The first passage occurs in Isa. xxxviii. 14 : " Like a 
crane or swallow, so did I chatter ;" and the other in Jer, viii 7 : 
" The turtle and the crane and the swallow observe the time of 
their coming." 

549 



550 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



It is rather remarkable that in both these cases the word 
" Crane " is used in connexion with the swallow, or rather the 
swift, and that in both instances the names of the birds should 
have been interchanged. If we refer to the original of these 




THE CRANE. 



passages, we shall find that the former of them would run 
thus, " Like a sis or an agur" and the latter thus, " The turtle 
and the sis and the agur." That in these passages the interpre- 
tation of the words sis and agur have been interchanged has 
already been mentioned, and, as the former has been described 
under the name of swallow or swift, we shall now treat of the 
latter under the title of Cr;i-ne. 



TEE CRANE. 651 

The species here mentioned is the common Crane, a bird which 
has a very wide range, and which seeks a warm climate on the 
approach of winter. 

The Crane performs its annual migrations in company, vast 
flocks of many thousand individuals passing like great clouds at 
an immense height^ whence their trumpet-like cry is audible for 
a great distance round, and attracts the ear if not the eye to 
them. Thus we have at a glance both the characteristics to 
which reference is made in the Scriptures, namely, the noisy cry 
and the habit of migration. 

It is a very gregarious bird, associating with its comrades in 
flocks, just as do the starlings and rooks of our own country, 
and, like these birds, has favourite roosting-places in which it 
passes the night. When evening approaches, the Cranes may 
be seen in large flocks passing to their roosting-places, and, on 
account of their great size, having a very strange effect. A fair- 
sized Crane will measure seven feet across the expanded wings, 
30 that even a solitary bird has a very imposing effect when 
flying, while that of a large flock of Cranes on the wing ia 
3imply magnificent. 

The spots which the Crane selects for its roosting-places are 
generally of the same character. Being in some respects a wary 
bird, though it is curiously indifferent in others, it will not roost 
in any place near bushes, rocks, or other spots which might 
serve to conceal an enemy. The locality most favoured by the 
Crane is a large, smooth, sloping bank, far from any spot wherein 
an enemy may be concealed. The birds keep a careful watch 
during the night, and it is impossible for any foe to approach 
them without being discovered. The Crane is noisy on the wing, 
and, whether it be soaring high over head on its long migratory 
journeys, or be merely flying at dusk to its roosting-place, it 
continually utters its loud, clangorous cry. 

The food of the Crane is much like that of the heron, but in 
addition to the frogs, fish, worms, and insects, it eats vegetable 
substances. Sonietimes it is apt to get into cultivated grounds, 
and then does much damage to the crops, pecking up the 
ground with its long beak, partly for the sake of the worms, 
grubs, and other creatures, and partly for the sake of the 
sprouting seeds. 

Although by reason of its scarcity the Crane has been 



552 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



abandoned as food, its flesh is really excellent, and in former days 
was valued very highly. 

Like the egret, the Crane is remarkable for the flowing 
plumes of the back, which fall over the tail feathers, and form 
a train. These feathers are much used as plumes, both for 
purposes of dress and as brushes or flappers wherewith to drive 
off the flies. By reason of this conformation, , some systematic 
zoologists have thought' that it has some affinity to the ostrich, 
the rhoea, and similar birds, and that the resemblance is 
strengthened by the structure of the digestive organs, which 
are suited to vegetable as well as ammal substances, the 
stomach being strong and muscular. 

The peculiar voice of the Crane, which it is so fond of 
using, and to which reference is made in the Scriptures, is 
caused by a peculiar structure of the windpipe, which is exceed- 
ingly long, and, instead of going straight to the lungs, under- 
goes several convolutions about the breast-bone, and then 
proceeds to the lungs. 

The Crane makes its nest on low ground, generally among 
osiers or reeds, and it lays only two eggs, pale olive in colour, 
dashed profusely with black and brown streaks. 





THE STORK. 

Signification of the Hebrew word Ghaiiidah — Various passages in which it is men- 
tioned — The Chasidah therefore a large, wide-winged, migratory bird— Its iden- 
tification with the Stork — The Stork always protected. 



In the Old Testament there are several passages wherein is 
mentioned the word Chasidah 

24 553 



554 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The Authorized Version invariably renders the word Chasidah 
as " Stork," and is undoubtedly right. 

In Buxtorf 's Lexicon there is a curious derivation of the word. 
He says that the word Chasidah is derived from chesed, a word 
that signifies benevolence. 

According to some writers, the name was given to the Stork 
because it was supposed to be a bird remarkable for its filial 
piety ; " for the storks in their turn support their parents in 
their old age : they allow them to rest their necks on their bodies 
during migration, and, if the elders are tired, the young ones 
take them on their backs." According to others, the name is 
given to the Stork because it exercises kindness towards its 
companions in bringing them food ; but in all cases the deriva- 
tion of the word is acknowledged to be the same. 

Partly in consequence of this idea, which is a very old and 
almost universal one, and partly on account of the great servicea 
rendered by the bird in clearing the ground of snakes, insects, 
and garbage, the Stork has always been protected thi-ough the 
East, as it is to the present day in several parts of Europe. The 
slaughter of a Stork, or even the destruction of its eggs, would 
be punished with a heavy fine ; and in consequence of the 
immunity which it enjoys, it loves to haunt the habitations 
of mankind. 

In many of the Continental towns, where sanitary regulations 
are not enforced, the Stork serves the purpose of a scavenger, 
and may be seen walking about the market-place, waiting for 
the offal of fish, fowls, and the like, which are simply thrown on 
the ground for the Storks to eat. In Eastern lands the Stork 
enjoys similar privileges, and we may infer that the bird was 
perfectly familiar both to the writers of the various Scriptural 
books in which it was mentioned, and to the people for whom 
these books were intended. 

When they settle upon a tract of ground, the Storks divide it 
among themselves in a manner that seems to have a sort of 
system in it, spreading themselves over it with wonderful regu- 
larity, each bird appearing to take possession of a definite amount 
of ground. By this mode of proceeding, the ground is rapidly 
cleared of all vermin ; the Storks examining their allotted space 
with the keenest scrutiny, and devouring every reptile, mouse, 
worm, grub, or insect that they can find on it. Sometimes they 




STORKS AND THEIR NESTS. 



556 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

will spread themselves in this manner over a vast extent of 
country, arriving suddenly, remaining for several months, and 
departing without giving any sign of their intention to move. 

The wings of the Stork, which are mentioned in Holy Writ, 
are very conspicuous, and are well calculated to strike an imagi- 
native mind. The general colour of the bird is white, while the 
quill feathers of the wings are black ; so that the effect of the 
spread wings is very striking, an adult bird measuring about 
seven feet across, when flying. As the body, large though it 
may be, is comparatively light when compared with the extent 
of wing, the flight is both lofty and sustained, the bird flying a 
very great height, and, when migrating, is literally the " stork in 
the heavens." 

Next we come to the migratory habits of the Stork. 

Like the swaUow, the Stork resorts year after year to the sam« 
spots ; and when it has once fixed on a locality for its nest, that 
place will be assuredly taken as regularly as the breeding-season 
comes round. The same pair are sure to return to their well- 
known home, notwithstanding the vast distances over which 
they pass, and the many lands in which they sojourn. Should 
one of the pair die, the other finds a mate in a very short time, 
and thus the same home is kept up by successive generations of 
Storks, much as among men one ancestral mansion is inhabited 
by a series of members of the same family. 

So well is this known, that when a pair of Storks have made 
their nest in a human habitation their return is always ex- 
pected, and when they arrive the absentees are welcomed on all 
sides. In many countries breeding-places are specially provided 
for the Storks ; and when one of them is occupied for the first 
time, the owner of the house looks upon it as a fortunate omen. 

The localities chosen by the Stork for its nest vary according 
to the surrounding conditions. The foundation which a Stork 
requires is a firm platform, the more elevated the better, but the 
bird seems to care little wkether this platform be on rocks, 
buildings, or trees. If, for example, it builds its nest in cragg}^ 
places, far from the habitations of man, it selects some flat ledge 
for the purpose, preferring those that are at the extreme tops of 
the rocks. The summit of a natural pinnacle is a favomite spot 
with the Stork. 

In many cases the Stork breeds among old ruins, and under 



THE STORK. 657 

such circumstances it is fond of building its nest on the tops of 
pillars or towers, the summits of arches, and similar localities. 
When it takes up its abode among mankind, it generally selects 
the breeding-places which have been built for it by those who 
know its taste, but it frequently chooses the top of a chimney, 
or some such locality. 

Sometimes, however, it is obliged to build in spots where it 
can find neither rocks nor buildings, and in such cases it builds 
on trees, and, like the heron, is sociable in its nesting, a whole 
community residing in a clump of trees. It is not very par- 
ticular about the kind of tree, provided that it be tolerably tall, 
and strong enough to bear the weight of its enormous nest ; and 
the reader will at once see that the fir-trees are peculiarly fitted 
to be the houses for the Stork. 

As may be expected from the localities chosen by the Stork 
for its breeding-place, its nest is very large and heavy. It is 
constructed with very little skill, and is scarcely more than a 
huge quantity of sticks, reeds, and similar substances, heaped 
together, and having in the middle a slight depression in which 
the eggs are laid. These eggs are usually three, or perhaps four 
in number, and now and then a fifth is seen, and are of a very 
pale buff or cream colour. 

As is the case with the heron, the young of the Stork are 
quite helpless w^hen hatched, and are most ungainly little beings, 
with their long legs doubled under them, unable to sustain their 
round and almost naked bodies, while their large beaks are ever 
gaping for food. Those of my readers who have had young 
birds of any kind must have noticed the extremely grotesque 
appearance which they possess when they hold up their heads 
and cry for food, with their bills open to an almost incredible 
extent. In such birds as the Stork, the heron, and others of the 
tribe, the grotesque appearance is exaggerated in proportion to 
the length and gape of the bill. 

The Stork is noted for being a peculiarly kind and loving 
parent to its young, in that point fully deserving the derivation 
of its Hebrew name, though its love manifests itself towards 
the young, and not towards the parent. 

The Eev. H. B. Tristram mentions from personal experience an 
instance of the watchful care exercised by the Stork over its 
young. " The writer was once in camp near an old ruined 



658 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

tower ill the plains of Zana, south of the Atlas, where a pair of 
storks had their nest. The four young might often be seen from 
a little distance, surveying the prospect from their lonely height, 
but whenever any of the human party happened to stroll near 
the tower, one of the old storks, invisible before, would instantly 
appear, and, lighting on the nest, put its feet gently on the necks 
of all the young, so as to hold them down out of sight till the 
stranger had passed, snapping its bill meanwhile, and assuming a 
grotesque air of indifference, as if unconscious of there being any- 
thing under its charge." 

The snapping noise which is here mentioned is the only sound 
produced by the Stork, which is an absolutely silent bird, as far 
as voice is concerned. 

There is another species of Stork found in Palestine, to which 
the fir-trees are especially a home. This is the Black Stork 
(Ciconia nigra), which in some parts of the country is even more 
plentiful than its white relative, which it resembles in almost 
every particular, except that it has a dark head and back, the 
feathers being glossed with purple and green like those of the 
magpie. This species, which is undoubtedly included in the 
Hebrew word chasidah, always makes its nest on trees whenever 
it can find them, and in some of the more densely wooded parts 
of Palestine is in consequence plentiful, placing its nest in the 
deepest parts of the forests. When it cannot obtain trees, it will 
build its nest on rooky ledges. It lays two or three eggs of a 
greenish white colour. 

Like the preceding species, the Black Stork is easily domes- 
ticated. Colonel Montague kept one which was very tame, and 
would follow its keeper like a dog. Its tameness enabled its 
proceedings to be closely watched, and its mode of feeding was 
thereby investigated. It was fond of examining the rank grass 
and mud for food, and while doing so always kept its bill a little 
open, so as to pounce down at once on any insect or reptile that 
it might disturb. 

Eels were its favourite food, and it was such an adept at 
catching them that it was never seen to miss one, no matter how 
smaU or quick it might be. As soon as it had caught one of 
these active fish, it went to some dry place, and then disabled 
its prey by shaking and beating it against the ground before 



THE STORK. 



659 



swallowing it, whereas many birds that feed on fish swallow 
their prey as soon as it is caught. Tlie Stork was never seen to 
swim as the heron sometimes does, but it would wade as long as 
it could place its feet on the bed of the stream, and would strain 
its head and the whole of its neck under water in searching 
for fish. 

It was of a mild and peaceable disposition, and, even if 
angered, (Jid not attempt to bite or strike with its beak, but 
only denoted its displeasure by blowing the air sharply from its 
lungs, and nodding its head repeatedly. After the manner of 
Storks, it always chose an elevated spot on which to repose, 




K' y^.0»- 



A NEST OF THE WHITE STORK. 



and took its rest standing on one leg, with its head so sunk 
among the feathers of its shoulders that scarcely any part of it 
was visible, the hinder part of the head resting on the back, and 
the bill lying on the fore-part of the neck. 

Though the bird is so capable of domestication, it does not of 
its own accord haunt the dwellings of men, like the White 
Stork, but avoids the neighbourhood of houses, and lives in the 
most retired places it can find. 



560 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE SWAN. 



Signification of the word Tinshemeth — The Gallinule and the Ibis — Appear' 
ance and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule — A strange use for the bird — 
The White or Sacred Ibis 



In the two parallel chapters of Lev. xi. 18 and Deut. xiv. IG, 
the Hebrew word tinshemeth is found, and evidently signifies 
some kind of bird which was forbidden as food. After stating 
(Lev. xi. 13) that " these are they which ye shall have in abomi- 
nation among the fowls ; they shall not be eaten, they are an 
abomination," the sacred lawgiver proceeds to enumerate a 
number of birds, nearly all of which have already been de- 
scribed. Among them occurs the name of tiTishemeth, between 
the great owl and the pelican. 

What was the precise species of bird which was signified by 
this name it is impossible to say, but there is no doubt that it 
could not have been the Swan, according to the rendering of the 
Authorized Version. The Swan is far too rare a bird in Pales- 
tine to have been specially mentioned in the law of Moses, and 
in all probability it was totally unknown to the generality of the 
Israelites. Even had it been known to them, and tolerably 
common, there seems to be no reason why it should have been 
reckoned among the list of unclean birds. 

On turning to the Hebrew Bible, we find that the word is left 
untranslated, and simply given in its Hebrew form, thereby 
signifying that the translators could form no opinion whatever of 
the proper rendering of the word. The Septuagint translates the 
Tinshemeth as the Porphyrio or Ibis, and the Vulgate follows the 
same rendering. Later naturalists have agreed that the Septua- 
gint and Vulgate have the far more probable reading ; and, as 
two birds are there mentioned, they wiU be both described. 



THE SWAN. 



561 



The first is the Porphyrio, by which we may understand the 
Hyacinthine Gallinule (Forphyrio veterum). All the birds of 
this group are remarkable for the enormous length of their toes, 
by means of which they are enabled to_ walk upon the loose 




IBIS AND OALLINUUS (SWAN OF SCKIPTTTRB). 



herbage that floats on the surface of the water as firmly as if 
they were treading on land. Their feet are also used, like those 
of the parrots, in conveying food to the mouth. We have in 
England a very familiar example of the Gallinules in the common 
water-hen, or moor-hen, the toes of which are of great propor- 
tionate length, though not so long as those of the Purple Galli- 
nule, which almost rivals in this respect the jacanas of South 
24* 



562 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

America and China. The water-rail, and corncrake or land-rail, 
are also allied to the Gallinules. 

The Hyacinthine Gallinule derives its name from its colour, 
which is a rich and variable bine, taking a turquoise hue on tlie 
head, neck, throat, and breast, and deep indigo on the back. 
The large bill and the legs are red. Like many other birds, 
however, it varies much in colour according to age. 

It has a very wide geographical range, being found in many 
parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is common in the marshy 
districts of Palestine, where its rich blue plumage and its large 
size, equalling that of a duck, render it very conspicuous. The 
large and powerful bill of this bird betokens the nature of its 
food, which consists almost entirely of hard vegetable sub- 
stances, the seeds of aquatic herbage forming a large portion of 
its diet. When it searches for food on the seashore, it eats the 
marine vegetation, mixing with this diet other articles of an 
animal nature, such as molluscs and small reptiles. 

Though apparently a clumsy bird, it moves with wonderful 
speed, running not only swiftly but gracefully, its large feet 
being no hindrance to the rapidity of its movements. It is 
mostly found in shallow marshes, where the construction of its 
feet enables it to traverse both the soft muddy ground and the 
patches of firm earth with equal ease. Its wings, however, are 
by no means equal to its legs either in power or activity ; and, 
like most of the rail tribe, it never takes to the air unless abso- 
lutely obliged to do so. 

The nest of the Hyacinthine Gallinule is made on the sedge- 
patches which dot the marshes, much like that of the coot. The 
nest, too, resembles that of the coot, being composed of reeds, 
sedges, and other aquatic plants. The eggs are three or four in 
number, white in colour, and nearly spherical in form. 

As the Ibis has an equal claim to the title of Tinshe- 
meth, we will devote a few lines to a description of the bird. 
The particular species which would be signified by the word 
tinshemeth would undoubtedly be the White or Sacred Ibis 
{Ibis religiosa), a bird which derives its name of Sacred from 
the reverence with which it was held by the ancient Egyptians, 
and the frequency with which its figure occurs in the monu- 
mental sculptures. It was also thought worthy of being em- 
balmed, and many mummies of the Ibis have been found in the 



THE CORMORANT. 663 

old Egyiitian burial-places, haviug been preserved for some three 
thousand years. 

It is about as large as an ordinary hen, and, as its name im- 
ports, has the greater part of its plumage white, the ends of 
the wing-feathers and the coverts being black, with violet reflec- 
tions. The long neck is black and bare, and has a most curious 
aspect, looking as if it were made of an old black kid glove, 
very much crumpled, but still retaining its gloss. 

The reason for the extreme veneration with which the bird 
was regarded by the ancient Egyptians seems rather obscure. 
It is probable, however, that the partial migration of the bird 
was connected in their minds with the rise of the Nile, a river 
as sacred to the old Egyptians as the Ganges to the modern 
Hindoo. As soon as the water begins to rise, the Ibis makes its 
appearance, sometimes alone, and sometimes in small troops. It 
haunts the banks of the river, and marshy places in general, 
diligently searching for food by the aid of its long bill. It can 
fly well and strongly, and it utters at intervals a rather loud cry, 
dipping its head at every utterance. 



THE CORMORANT. 



The word Shdldk and its signification — Habits of the Cormorant— The bird trained 
to catch fish — Mode of securing its prey — Nests and eggs of the Cormorant — 
Nesting in fir-trees — Flesh of the bird. 

Although in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures the word 
Cormorant occurs three times, there is no doubt that in two of 
the passages the Hebrew word ought to have been rendered as 
Pelican, as we shall see when we come presently to the descrip- 
tion of that bird. 

In the two parallel passages. Lev. xi. 17 and Deut. xiv. 17, 
a creature called the Shalak is mentioned in the list of prohibited 
meats. That the Shalak must be a bird is evident from the 
context, and we are therefore only left to discover what sort of 
bird it may be. On looking at the etymology of the word wq 



564 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

find that it is derived from a root whicli signifies hurling or 
casting down, and we may therefore presume that the bird is one 
which plunges or sweeps down upon its prey. 

Weighing, carefully, the opinions of the various Hebraists and 
naturalists, we may safely determine that the word shdldk has 
been rightly translated in the Authorized Version. The Hebrew 
Bible gives the same reading, and does not affix the mark of 
doubt to the word, though there are very few of the long list of 
animals in Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv. which are not either distin- 
guished by the mark of doubt, or, like the Tinshemeth, are left 
untranslated. 

The Cormorant belongs to the family of the pelicans, the re- 
lationship between them being evident to the most unpractised 
eye; and the whole structure of the bird shows its admirable 
adaptation for the life which it leads. 

Its long beak enables it to seize even a large fish, while the 
hook at the end prevents the slippery prey from escaping. The 
long snake-like neck gives the bird the power of darting its 
beak with great' rapidity, and at the same time allows it to seize 
prey immediately to the right or left of its course. Its strong, 
closely-feathered wings enable it to fly with tolerable speed, while 
at the same time they can be closed so tightly to the body that 
they do not hinder the progress of the bird through the water ; 
wnile the tail serves equally when spread to direct its course 
through the air, and when partially or entirely closed to act as a 
rudder in the water. Lastly, its short powerful legs, with their 
broadly-webbed feet, act as paddles, by which the bird urges 
itself through the water with such wonderful speed that it can 
overtake and secure the fishes even in their own element.- Be- 
sides these outward characteristics, we find that the bird is able 
to make a very long stay under water, the lungs being adapted so 
as to contain a wouderful Amount of air. 

The Cormorant has been trained to play the same part in 
the water as the falcon in the air, and has been taught to 
catch fish, and bring them ashore for its master. So adroit 
are they, that if one of them should catclf a fish which is too 
heavy for it, another bird will come to its assistance, and the 
two together will bring the struggling prey to land. Tramed 
birds of this description have been employed in China from time 
immemorial. 



THE CORMORANT. 565 

In order to prevent it from swallowing the fish which it takes, 
each bird has a ring or ligature passed round its neck. 

The Cormorant is a most voracious bird, swallowing a con- 
siderable weight of fish at a meal, and digesting them so rapidly 
that it is soon ready for another supply. Although it is essen- 
tially a marine bird, hunger often takes it inland, especially to 
places where there are lakes or large rivers. 

While the ducks and teal and widgeons may be stationary on the 
pool, the cormorant is seen swimming to and fro, as if in quest 
of something. First raising his body nearly perpendicular, down 
he plunges into the deep, and, after staying there a considerable 
time, he is sure to bring up a fish, which he invariably swallows 
head foremost. Sometimes half an hour elapses before he can 
manage to accommodate a large eel quietly in his stomach. 

You see him straining violently with repeated efforts to gulp 
it ; and when you fancy that the slippery mouthful is success- 
fully disposed of, all on a sudden the eel retrogrades upwards 
from its dismal sepulchre, struggling violently to escape. The 
cormorant swallows it again, and up again it comes, and shows 
its tail a foot or more out of its destroyer's mouth. At length, 
worn out with ineffectual writhings and slidings, the eel is 
gulped down into the cormorant's stomach for the last time, 
there to meet its dreaded and inevitable fate. 

Mr. Fortune gives a very interesting account of the feeding 
of tame Cormorants in China. The birds prefeired eels to all 
other food, and, in spite of the difficulty in swallowing the 
slippery and active creature, would not touch another fish as 
long as an eel was left. The bird is so completely at home in the 
water that it does not need, like the heron and other aquatic birds, 
to bring its prey ashore in order to swallow it, but can eat fish 
in the water as well as catch them. It always seizes the fish 
crosswise, and is therefore obliged to turn it before it can swallow 
the prey with the head downwards. Sometimes it contrives to 
turn the fish while still under water, but, if it should fail in so 
doing, it brings its prey to the surface, and shifts it about in its 
bill, making a series of little snatches at it until the head is in 
the right direction. When it seizes a very large fish, the bird 
shakes its prey just as a dog shakes a rat, and so disables it. It 
ia said to eat its own weight of fish in a single day. 



566 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Sometimes, when it has been very successful or exceptionally 
hungry, it loads itself with food to such an extent that it be- 
comes almost insensible during the process of digestion, and, 
although naturally a keen-eyed and wary bird, allows itseK to 
be captured by hand. 

The nes+ of the Cormorant is always upon a rocky ledge, and 
generally on a spot which is inaccessible except by practised 
climbers furnished with ropes, poles, hooks, and other appur- 
tenances. Mr. Waterton mentions that when he descended the 
Eaincliff, a precipice some four hundred feet in height, he saw 
numbers of the nests and eggs, but could not get at them except 
by swinging himself boldly off the face of the cliff, so as to be 
brought by the return swing into the recesses chosen by the 
birds. 

The nests are mostly placed in close proximity to each other, 
and are made of sticks and seaweeds, and, as is usual with such 
nests, are very inartificially constructed. The eggs are of a 
greenish white on the outside, and green on the inside. When 
found in the nest, they are covered with a sort of chalky crust, 
so that the true colour is not perceptible until the crust is 
scraped off. Two to four eggs are generally laid in, or rather on, 
each nest. As may be imagined from the character of the birds' 
food, the odour of the nesting-place is most horrible. 

Sometimes, when rocks cannot be found, the Cormorant is 
obliged to select other spots for its nest. It is mentioned in the 
" Proceedings of the Zoological Society," that upon an island in 
the midst of a large lake there were a number of Scotch fir- 
trees, upon the branches of which were about eighty nests of 
the Cormorant. 

The flesh of the Cormorant is very seldom eaten, as it has a 
fishy flavour which is far from agreeable. To eat an old Cor- 
morant is indeed almost impossible, but the young birds may be 
rendered edible by taking them as soon as killed, skinning them, 
removing the whole of the interior, wrapping them in cloths, 
and burying them for some time in the .ground. 



THE PELICAN. 567 



THE PELICAN. 



The Pelican of the wilderness — Attitudes of the bird — Its loA^e of solitude — Mode 
of feeding the young — Fables regarding the Pelican- — Breeding-places of the 
bird — The object of its wide wings and large pouch — Colour of the Pelican. 



It has been mentioned that in two passages of Scripture, the 
word which is translated in the Authorized Version as Cor- 
morant, ought to have been rendered as Pelican. These, how- 
ever, are not the first passages in which we meet with the word 
kaath. The name occurs in the two parallel passages of Lev. 
xi. and Dent. xiv. among the list of birds which are proscribed 
as food. Passing over them, we next come to Ps. cii. 6. In 
this passage, the sacred writer is lamenting his misery : " By 
reason of the voice of my groaning my bones cleave to my 
skin. 

" I am like a pelican of the wilderness : I am like an owl of 
the desert.'' 

In these sentences, we see that the Kaath was a bird of 
solitude that was to be found in the "wilderness," i.e. far from 
the habitations of man. This is one of the characteristics of the 
Pelican, which loves not the neighbourhood of human beings, 
and is fond of resorting to broad, uncultivated lands, where it 
will not be disturbed. 

In them it makes its nest and hatches its young, and to them 
it retires after feeding, in order to digest in quiet the ample meal 
which it has made. Mr. Tristram well suggests that the metaphor 
of the Psalmist may allude to the habit common to the Pelican 
and its kin, of sitting motionless for hours after it has gorged 
itself with food, its head sunk on its shoulders, and its bill 
resting on its breast. 



568 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



This is but one of the singular, and often grotesque, attitudes 
in which the Pelican is in the habit of indulging. 

There are before me a number of sketches made of the 
Pelicans at the Zoological Gardens, and in no two cases does 
one attitude in the least resemble another. In one sketch the 




THE PELICAN. 



bird is sitting in the attitude which has just been described. In 
another it is walking, or rather staggering, along, with its head 
on one side, and its beak so closed that hardly a vestige of its 
enormous pouch can be seen. Another sketch shows the same 
bird as it appeared when angry with a companion, and scolding 
it§ fo^ in impotent rage ; while another shows it basking in the 



THE PELICAN. 669 

sun, with its magnificent wings spread and shaking in the warm 
beams, and its pouch hanging in folds from its chin. 

One of the most curious of these sketches shows the bird 
squatting on the ground, with its head drawn back as far as 
possible, and sunk so far among the feathers of tlie back and 
shoulders that only a portion of the head itself can be seen, 
while the long beak is hidden, except an inch or two of the end. 
In this attitude it might easily be mistaken at a little distance 
for an oval white stone. 

The derivation of the Hebrew word Jcaath is a very curious 
one. It is taken from a verb signifying " to vomit," and this 
derivation has been explained in different ways. 

The early writers, who were comparatively ignorant of natural 
history, thought that the Pelican lived chiefly on molluscs, and 
that, after digesting the animals, it rejected their shells, just as 
the owl and the hawk reject the bones, fur, and feathers of their 
prey. 

They thought that the Pelican was a bird of a hot temperament, 
and that the molluscs were quickly digested by the heat of the 
stomach. 

At the present day, however, knowing as we do the habits of 
the Pelican, we find that, although the reasons just given are 
faulty, and that the Pelican lives essentially on fish, and not on 
molluscs, the derivation of the word is really a good one, and 
that those who gave the bird the name of Kaath, or the vomiter, 
were well acquainted with its habits. 

The bird certainly does eat molluscs, but the principal part 
of its diet is composed of fish, which it catches dexterously by 
a sort of sidelong snatch of its enormous bill. The skin under 
the lower part of the beak is so modified that it can form, when 
distended, an enormous pouch, capable of holding a great quan- 
tity of fish, though, as long as it is not wanted, the pouch is so 
contracted into longitudinal folds as to be scarcely perceptible. 
When it has filled the pouch, it usually retires from the water, 
and flies to a retired spot, often many miles inland, where it 
can sit and digest at its ease the enormous meal which it has 
made. 

As it often chooses its breeding-places in similar spots, far 
from the water, it has to carry the food with which it nourishes 
its yoimg for many miles. For this purpose it is furnished, not 
38 



570 STOEY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

only with the pouch which has been just mentioned, but with 
long, wide, and very powerful wings, often measuring from twelve 
to thirteen feet from tip to tip. No one, on looking at a Pelican 
as it waddles about or sits at rest, would imagine the gigantic 
dimensions of the wings, which seem, as the bird spreads them, 
to have almost as unlimited a power of expansion as the pouch. 

In these two points the true Pelicans present a strong contrast 
to the cormorants, though birds closely allied. The cormorant 
has its home close b} the sea, and therefore needs not to cany 
its food for any distance. Consequently, it needs no pouch, 
and has none. Neither does it require the great expanse of 
wing which is needful for the Pelican, that has to carry such 
a weight of fish through the air. Accordingly, the \Wngs, though 
strong enough to enable the bird to carry for a short distance 
a single fish of somewhat large size, are comparatively short and 
closely feathered, and the flight of the cormorant possesses 
neither the grace nor the power which distinguishes that of the 
Pelican. 

When the Pelican feeds its young, it does so by pressing its 
beak against its breast, so as to force out of it the enclosed fish. 
Now the tip of the beak is armed, like that of the cormorant, 
with a shai-ply-curved hook, only, in the case of the Pelican, the 
hook is of a bright scarlet colour, looking, when the bird presses 
the beak against the white feathers of the breast, like a large 
drop of blood. Hence arose the curious legend respecting the 
Pelican, which represented it as feeding its young with its own 
blood, and tearing open its breast with its hooked bill. We find 
that this legend is exemplified by the oft-recurring symbol of the 
" Pelican feeding its young " in ecclesiastical art, as an emblem 
of Divine love. 

This is one of the many instances in which the inventive, 
poetical, inaccurate Oriental mind has seized some peculiarity of 
form, and based upon it a whole series of fabulous legends. As 
long as they restricted themselves to the appearance and habits 
of the animals with which they were familiarly acquainted, the 
old wTiters were curiously full, exact, and precise in their details. 
But as soon as they came to any creature of whose mode of life 
they were entirely or partially ignorant, they allowed th«ir 
inventive faculties full scope, and put forward as zoological facts 
statements which were the mere creation of their own fancy. 



THE PELICAN. 571 

We have already seen several examples of this propensity, and 
shall find more as we proceed with the zoology of the Scriptures. 

The fabulous legends of the Pelican are too numerous to be 
even mentioned, but there is one which deserves notice, because 
it is made the basis of an old Persian fable. 

The writer of the legend evidently had some partial knowledge 
of the bird. He knew that it had a large pouch which could 
hold fish and water ; that it had large and powerful wings ; and 
that it was in the habit of flying far inland, either for the purpose 
of digesting its food or nourishing its young. Knowing that the 
Pelican is in the habit of choosing solitary spots in which it may 
bring up its young in safety, but not knowing the precise mode 
of its nesting, the writer in question has trusted to his imagi- 
nation, and put forward his theories as facts. 

Knowing that the bird dwells in " the wilderness," he has 
assumed that the wilderness in question is a sandy, arid desert, 
far from water, and consequently from vegetation. Such being 
the case, the nurture of the Pelican's young is evidently a diffi- 
cult question. Being aquatic birds, the young must needs require 
water for drink and bathing, as well as fish for food ; and, though 
a supply of both these necessaries could be brought in the ample 
pouches of the parents, fhey would be wasted unless some mode 
of storing were employed. 

Accordingly, the parent birds were said to make their nest 
in a hollow tree, and to line it with clay, or to build it altogether 
of clay, so as to leave a deep basin. This basin the parent birds 
were said to use as a sort of store-pond, bringing home supplies 
of fish and water in their pouches, and pouring them into the 
pond. The wild beasts who lived in the desert were said to be 
acquainted with these nests, and to resort to them daily in order 
to quench their thirst, repaying their entertainers by protecting 
their homes. 

In real fact, the Pelican mostly breeds near water, and is fond 
of selecting little rocky islands where it cannot be approached 
without danger. The nest is made on the ground, and is formed 
in a most inartificial manner of reeds and grass, the general mass 
of the nest being made of the reeds, and the lining being formed 
of grass. The eggs are white, of nearly the same shape at both 
ouds, and are from two to five in number. On an average, 
however, each nest will contain about two eggs. 



572 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Tlie parent birds are very energetic in defence of their eggs oi 
young, and, according to Le Vaillant, when approached they are 
" like furious harpies let loose against us, and their cries ren- 
dered us almost deaf. They often flew so near us that they 
flapped their wings in our faces, and, though we fired our pieces 
repeatedly, we were not able to frighten them." When the well- 
known naturalist Sonnerat tried to drive a female Pelican 
from her nest, she appeared not to be frightened, but angry. 
She would not move from her nest, and when he tried to 
push her off, she struck at him with her long bill and uttered 
cries of rage. 

In order to aid the bird in carrying the heavy weights with 
which it loads itself, the whole skeleton is permeated with air, 
and is exceedingly light. Beside this, the whole cellular system 
of the bird is honeycombed with air-cells, so that the bulk of 
the bird can be greatly increased, while its weight remains 
practically unaltered, and the Pelican becomes a sort of living 
balloon. 

The habit of conveying its food inland before eating it is so 
characteristic of the Pelican that other birds take advantage of 
it. In some countries there is a large hawk which robs the 
Pelican, just as the bald-headed eagle of America robs the 
osprey. Knowing instinctively that when a Pelican is flying 
inland slowly and heavily and with a distended pouch it is 
carrying a supply of food to its home, the hawk dashes at it, 
and frightens it so that the poor bird opens its beak, and gives 
up to the assailant the fish which it was bearing homewards. 

It is evident that the wings which are needed for supporting 
such weights, and which, as we have seen, exceed twelve feet in 
length from tip to tip, would be useless in the water, and would 
hinder rather than aid the bird if it attempted to dive as the 
close-winged cormorant does. Accordingly, we find that the 
Pelican is not a diver, and, instead of chasing its finny prey 
under water, after the manner of the cormorant, it contents 
itself with scooping up in its beak the fishes which come to the 
surface of the water. The very buoyancy of its body would 
prevent it from diving as does the cormorant, and, although it 
often plunges into the water so fairly as to be for a moment 
submerged, it almost immediately rises, and pursues its course 
on the surface of the water, and not beneath it. Like the 



THE PELICAN. 673 

cormorant, the Pelican can perch on trees, though it does not 
select such spots for its roosting-places, and prefers rocks to 
branches. In one case, however, when some young Pelicans 
had been captured and tied to a stake, their mother used to 
bring them food during the day, and at night was accustomed 
to roost in the branches of a tree above them. 

Though under some circumstances a thoroughly social bird, it 
is yet fond of retiring to the most solitary spots in order to con- 
sume at peace the prey that it has captured ; and, as it sits motion- 
less and alone for hours, more like a white stone than a bird, it 
may well be accepted as a type of solitude and desolation. 

The colour of the common Pelican is white, with a very slight 
pinky tinge, which is most con&picuous in the breeding season. 
The feathers of the crest are yellow, and the quill feathers of 
the wings are jetty black, contrasting well with the white 
plumage of the body. The pouch is yellow, and the upper 
part of the beak bluish grey, with a red line running across 
the middle, and a bright red hook at the tip. This plumage 
belongs only to the adult bird, that of the young being ashen 
grey, and four or five years are required before the bird puts on 
its full beauty. There is no difference in the appearance of the 
sexes. The illustration represents a fine old male Crested Pelican. 
The general colour is a greyish white, with a slight yellowish tint 
on the breast. The pouch is bright orange, and the crest is formed 
of curling feathers. 




REPTILES. 





THE TORTOISE. 

The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated as Tortoise — Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise 
— Its slow movements — Hibernation dependent on temperature — The Water- 
Tortoises — Their food and voracity — Their eggs — Their odour terrifying the 
horses — The Dhubb lizard and its legends — Its food, and localities which it 
prefers. 



We now come to a different class of animated beinecs. In Levit. 
xi. 29, there occurs among the list of unclean beasts a word which 
is translated in the Authorized Version as " tortoise." The word 
is Tzah, and is rendered in the Hebrew Bible as "lizard," but 
with the mark of doubt affixed to it. As the correct translation 
of the word is very dubious, we shall examine it in both these 
senses. 

The common Tortoise is very common in Palestine, and is so 
plentiful that it would certainly have been used by the Israelites 
as food, had it not been prohibited by law. At the present dny 
it is cooked and eaten by the inhabitants of the country who 
are not Jews, and its eggs are in as great request as those of the 
fowl. 

These eggs are hard, nearly spherical, thick-shelled, and 
covered with minute punctures, giving them a roughness like 
that of a file. In captivFty the Tortoise is very careless about 
the mode in which they are deposited, and I have seen a large 

25 ^^^ 



578 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



yard almost covered with eggs laid by Tortoises and abandoned. 
The white or albumen of the Qgg is so stiff and gelatinous that 
to empty one of them without breaking the shell is a difficult 
task, and the yolk is very dark, and covered with minute spots 
of black. When fresh the eggs are as good as those of the fowl, 
and many persons even think them better ; the only drawback 
being that their small size and thick shell cause considerable 
trouble in eatinoj them. ' 










THE DHUBB OK LIZARD AND THE TORTOISE. 



The flesh of the Tortoise is eaten, not only by human beings, 
but by birds, such as the lammergeier. In order to get at the 
flesh of the Tortoise, they carry it high in the air and drop it on 
the ground so as to break the shell to pieces, should the reptile 
fall on a stone or rock. If, as is not often the case in such a 



THE TORTOISE. 



579 



rocky land as that of Palestine, it should fall on a soft spot, the 
bird picks it up, soars aloft, and drops it again. 

The Tortoises have no teeth, but yet are able to crop the 
nerbage with perfect ease. In lieu of teeth the edges of the 
jaws are sharp-edged and very hard, so that they cut anything 
that comes between them like a pair of shears. Leaves that are 
pulpy and crisp are bitten through at once, but those that are 
thin, tough, and fibrous are rather torn than bitten, the Tortoise 
placing its feet upon them, and dragging them to pieces with its 
jaws. The carnivorous Tortoises have a similar habit, as we shall 
presently see. 

This is the species from whose deliberate and slow movements 
the familiar metaphor of " slow as a Tortoise " was derived, and 
it is this species which is the hero of the popular fable of the 




^-ri, ~ ^*-, '^ , -^-^-i - ^~. 



WA.TER TORTOISE. 



" Hare and the Tortoise." Many of the reptiles are very slow 
in some things and astonishingly quick in others. Some of the 
lizards, for example, will at one time remain motionless for 
many hours together, or creep about with a slow and snail-like 
progress, while at others they dart from spot to spot with such 
rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow their movements. This 
however is not the case with the Tortoise, which is always slow, 
and, but for the defensive armour in which it is encased, would 
long ago have been extirpated. 

During the whole of the summer montlis it may be seen 
crawling deliberately among tlie herbage, eating in the same 



580 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANTMAJA 

deliberate style wliich characterises all its inovenients, and occa- 
sionally resting in the same spot for many hours together, 
apparently enjoying the warm beams of the sunshine. 

As winter approaches, it slowly scrapes a deep hole in the 
ground, and buries itself until the following spring awakes it 
once more to active life. The depth of its burrow depends on 
the severity of the winter, for, as the cold increases, the Tortoise 
sinks itself more deeply into the earth. 

Mention has been made of a species of Tortoise that inhabits 
the water. This is the Caspian Emys {Emys caspica), a small 
species, measuring about six inches in length. It belongs to the 
large family of the Terrapins, several of which are so well known 
in America, and has a long, retractile neck, very sharp jaws, and 
webbed feet, and a well-developed tail. 

The body is flattish, and the colour is olive, with lines of 
yellow edged with black, and the head is marked with longi- 
tudinal streaks of bright yellow. After the death of the creature 
these yellow streaks fade away gradually, and at last become 
nearly black. The skin of the head is thin, but very hard. In 
general appearance it is not unlike the chicken Tortoise of 
America, a species which is often brought to England and kept 
in captivity, on account of its hardy nature and the little trouble 
which is needed for keeping it in health. 

I have kept specimens of. the Caspian Emys for some time, 
and foimd them to be more interesting animals than they at first 
promised to be. They were active, swimming with considerable 
speed, and snatching quickly at anything which they fancied 
might be food. 

They were exceedingly voracious, consuming daily a quantity 
of meat apparently disproportioned to their size, and eating it in 
a manner that strongly reminded me of the mole when engaged 
on a piece of meat or the body of a bird or mouse. The Tortoise 
would plant its fore-paws firmly at each side of the meat, seize 
a mouthful in its jaws, and, by retracting its head violently, 
would tear away the piece which it had grasped. 

They are most destructive among fish, and are apt to rise 
quietly underneath a fish as it basks near the surface of the 
water, grasp it beneath with its sharp-edged jaws, and tear away 
the piece, leaving the fish to die. It is rather remarkable that 



THE TORTOISE. 581 

the Lepidosiren, or mud-fish of the Gambia, destroys fish in a 
precisely similar manner, though, as its jaws are much sharper 
than those of the Emys, it does not need the aid of fore-paws in 
biting out its mouthful of flesh. 

like the land Tortoise, it is one of the hibernators, and during 
the winter months buries itself deeply in the earth, choosing 
for this purpose the soft, muddy bed or bank of the pond in 
which it lives. 

Its eggs are white, and hard-shelled, but are more oval than 
those of the land Tortoise, and both ends are nearly alike. In 
fact, its Qgg might well be mistaken for that of a small pigeon. 
The shell has a porcelain-like look, and is very liable to crack, so 
that the resemblance is increased. 

There is one drawback to these reptiles when kept as pets. 
They give out a very unpleasant odour, which is disagreeable to 
human nostrils, but is absolutely terrifying to many animals. 
The monkey tribe have the strongest objection to these aquatic 
Tortoises. I once held one of them towards a very tame 
chimpanzee, much to his discomfiture. He muttered and re- 
monstrated, and retreated as far as he could, pushing out his 
lips in a funnel-like form, and showing his repugnance to the 
reptile in a manner that could not be mistaken. 

Horses seem to be driven almost frantic with terror, not only 
by the sight, but by the odour of these Tortoises. In Southern 
Africa there are Tortoises closely allied to the Caspian Emys, 
and having the same power of frightening horses. 

I have read an account of an adventure there with one of 
those Tortoises, which I will give. This variety is described as 
being of an olive colour. When adult, there is a slight depression 
on either side of the vertebral line. 

" Some very awkward accidents have occurred to parties from 
the terror caused by the fresh-water turtle {Pelamedusa subrufa). 
Carts have been smashed to fragments, riders thrown., and the 
utmost confusion caused by them. It is their smell, and it is 
certainly very disagreeable.- 

" My first acquaintance with the fact was in this wise. 1 
-vfas out shooting with two young ladies who had volunteered 
as markers ; and, as you know, all oijr shooting is done from 
horseback. I had jumped off for a shot at some francolins 
near a knill, or water-hole, and, after picking up my birds, was 



582 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

coming round the knoll to windward of the horses. In my path 
scrambled a turtle. I called out to my young friends, and told 
them of my find, on which one of them, in a hasty voice, said, 
' Oh, please, Mr. L., don't touch it ; you wiU frighten the 
horses!' 

" Of course I laughed at the idea, and picked up the reptile, 
which instantly emitted its pungent odour — its means of de- 
fence. Though a long way off, the moment the horses caught 
the scent, away they flew, showing terror in every action. The 
girls, luckily splendid riders, tugged in vain at the reins ; away 
they went over the Veldt, leaving me in mortal fear that the 
yawning 'aard-vark' holes {Orycteropus capends) would break 
their necks. My own horse, which I had hitched to a bush, 
tore away his bridle, and with the ends streaming in the wind 
and the stirrups clashing about him, sped off home at full 
gallop, and was only recovered after a severe chase by my 
gallant young Amazons, who, after a race of some miles, succeeded 
in checking their affrighted steeds and in securing my runaway. 
But for some hours after, if I ventured to windward, there were 
wild-looking eyes and cocked ears — the smell of the reptile 
clung to me." 

Should any of my readers keep any of those water Tortoises, 
they will do well to supply them plentifully with food, to give 
them an elevated rocky perch on which they can scramble, 
and on which they will sit for hours so motionless that at a 
little distance they can scarcely be distinguished from the stone 
on which they rest. They should also be weighed at regular 
intervals, as decrease of weight is a sure sign that something is 
wrong, and, as a general rule, is an almost certain precursor 
of death. 

This little reptile is not without its legends. According to 
the old writers on natural history, it is of exceeding use to vine- 
growers in the season when there is excess of rain or hail 
Whenever the owner of a vineyard sees a black cloud approach- 
ing, all he has to do is, to take one x)f these Tortoises, lay it on 
its back, and carry it round the vineyard. He must then go 
into the middle of the ground and lay the reptile on the earth, 
still on its back ; and thg effect of this proceeding would be that 
the cloud would pass aside from a place so well protected. 

**But," proceeds the narrator, not wishing to be responsible 



THE DHUBB. 583 

for the statement, " such diabolical and foolish observations 
were not so muche to be remembered in this place, were it not 
for their sillinesse, that by knowing them men might learn the 
weaknesse of human wisdom when it erreth from the fountain of 
all science and true knowledge (which is Divinity), and the 
most approved assertions of nature. And so I will say no more 
in this place of the sweet-water tortoise." 



THE DHUBB. 

We now come to the second animal, which may probably be 
the Tzab of the Old Testament. 

This creature is one of the lizards, and is a very odd-looking 
creature. It is certainly not so attractive in appearance that 
the Jews might be supposed to desire it as food ; but it often 
happens that, as is the case with the turtle and iguana, from 
the most ungainly, in the latter animal even repulsive, forms are 
produced the most delicate meats. 

The Dhtjbb, or Egyptian Mastigure, as the lizard is indiffer- 
ently called, grows to a considerable size, measuring when adult 
three feet in length. Its colour is green, variegated with brown, 
and is slightly changeable, though not to the extent that dis- 
tinguishes the chameleon. The chief peculiarity of this lizard 
consists in its tail, which is covered with a series of whorls or 
circles of long, sharply-pointed, hard-edged scales. The very 
appearance of this tail suggests its use as a weapon of defence, 
and it is said that even the dreaded cerastes is conquered by it, 
when the lizard and the snake happen to find themselves 
occupants of the same hole. 

The ancients had a very amusing notion respecting the use of 
the spiny tail possessed by the Dhubb and its kin. They had 
an idea that, comparatively small though it was, it fed "upon 
cattle, and that it was able to take them from the herd and 
drive them to its home. For this purpose, when it had selected 
an ox, it jumped on its back, and by the pricking of its sharp 
claws drove the animal to gallop in hope of ridding himself of 
his tormentor. In order to guide him in the direction of its 
home, it made use of its tail, lashing the ox " to make him go 
with his rider to the place of his most fit execution, free from 



584 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



all rescue of his herdsman, or pastor, or the annoyance of pas- 
sengers, where, in most cruel and savage manner, he teareth the 
limbs and parts one from another till he be devoured." 

This very absurd account is headed by an illustration, which, 
though bad in drawing and rude in execution, is yet so bold and 
truthful that there is no doubt that it was sketched from the 
living animal. 

As it haunts sandy downs, rocky spots, and similar localities, 
it is well adapted for the Holy Land, which is the home of a 
vast number of reptiles, especially of those belonging to the 
lizards. In the summer time they have the full enjoyment of 
the hot sunbeams, in which they delight, and which seem to 
rouse these cold-blooded creatures to action, while they deprive 
the higher animals of all spirit and energy. In the winter time 
these very spots afford localities wherein the lizards can hibernate 
until the following spring, and in such a case they furnish the 
reptiles with secure hiding-places. 

Although the Dhubb does not destroy and tear to pieces oxen 
and other cattle, it is yet a rather bloodthirsty reptile, and will 
kill and devour birds as large as the domestic fowl. Usually, 
however, its food consists of beetles and other insects, which it 
takes deliberately. 




'"'^7-£^ '"^'viAa ij,! 



^siiiiiiiiP** 



THE CROCODILE. 585 



THE LEVIATHAN OE CROCODIT.E. 

Signification of the word Leviathan — Description in the Book of Job— Structure 
and general habits of the Crocodile — The throat-valve and its use — Position 
of the nostrils — Worship of the Crocodile — The reptile known in the Holy 
Land— Two legends respecting its presence there — Mode of taking prey — 
Cunning of the Crocodile— The baboons and the Crocodile — Speed of the 
repttle — Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their enemies — Curious story 
of the ichneumon and ibis — Modes of capturing the Crocodile — Analysis of 
Job's description— The Crocodile also signified by the word Tannin. Acaron's 
rod changed into a Tannin; — Various passages in which the word occurs — Use 
of the word by the prophet Jeremiah. 

The word Leviathan is used in a rather loose manner in the Old 
Testament, in some places representing a mammalian of the sea, 
and in others signifying a reptile inhabiting the rivers. As in 
the most important of these passages the Crocodile is evidently 
signified, we will accept that rendering, and consider the Croco- 
dile as being the Leviathan of Scripture. The Jewish Bible 
accepts the word Crocodile, and does not add the mark of doubt. 

The fullest account of the Leviathan occurs in Job xli., the 
whole of which chapter is given to the description of the terrible 
reptile. As the translation of the Jewish Bible differs in some 
points from that of the Authorized Version, I shall here give 
the former, so that the reader may be able to compare them with 
each other. 

" Canst thou draw out a crocodile with a hook, or his tongue 
with a cord which thou lettest down ? 

" Canst thou put a reed into his nose, or bore his jaw through 
with a thorn ? 

" Will he make many supplications unto thee ? will he speak 
soft words unto thee ? 

" Will he make a covenant with thee ? wilt thou take him as 
a servant for ever ? 

" Wilt thou play with him as with a bird, or wilt thou bind 
him for thy maidens ? 

" Shall the companions make a banquet of him ? shall they 
part him among the merchants ? 
25* 



586 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

" Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons, or his head with 
fish-spears ? 

" Lay thine hand upon him, thou wilt no more remember the. 
battle. 

" Behold, the hope of him is in vain ; shall not one bo cast 
down at the sight of him ? 

" None is so fierce that dare stir him up ; who then is able to 
stand before Me ? 

" Who hath forestalled Me that I should repay him? whatsoever 
is under the whole heaven is Mine. 

" I will not be silent of his parts, nor of the matter of his 
power, nor of his comely proportion. 

" Who can uncover the face of his garment ? who would enter 
the double row in his jaw ? 

" Who can open the doors of his face ? his teeth are terrible 
round about. 

" The strength of his shields are his pride, shut up together 
as with a close seal. 

"One is so near to another that no air can come between 
them. 

" They are joined one to another, they stick together that they 
cannot be sundered. 

" His snoi-tings make light to shine, and his eyes are like the 
eyelids of the morning dawn. 

" Out of his nostrils goeth smoke, as out of a seething pot or 
caldron. 

" His breath kindleth live coals, and a flame goeth out of his 
mouth. 

" In his neck abideth strength, and before him danceth terror 

" The flakes of his flesh are joined together, they are firm in 
themselves ; yea, as hard as nether millstone. 

" When he raiseth himself up, the mighty are afraid ; by 
reason of breakings they lose themselves. 

" The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold : the 
spear, the dart, nor the habergeon. 

" He esteemeth iron as straw, and copper as rotten w^ood. 

" The arrow cannot make him flee : sling-stones are turned 
with him into stubble. 

" Clubs are counted as stubble ; he laugheth at the shaking of 
a spear. 




CKOCODILE ATTACKING HORSES. 



588 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

" His under parts are like sharp points of potsherd ; he 
speaketh sharp points upon the mire. 

" lie maketh the deep to hoil Hke a pot ; he maketh the sea 
like a pot of ointment. 

" He maketh a path to shine after him ; one would think the 
deep to be hoary. 

" Upon earth there is not his like, who is made without fear. 

" He beholdeth all high things ; he is a king over all the 
children of pride." 

This splendid description points as clearly to the Crocodile 
as the description of the Behemoth which immediately precedes 
it does to the hippopotamus, and it is tolerably evident that the 
sacred poet who wrote these passages must have been personally 
acquainted with both the Crocodile and the hippopotamus. In 
both descriptions there are a few exaggerations, or rather, poetical 
licences, i'or example, the bones of the hippopotamus are said 
to be iron and copper, and the Crocodile is said to kindle live 
coals with his breath. These, however, are but the natural 
imagery of an Oriental poet, and, considering the subject, we 
may rather wonder that the writer has not introduced even more 
fanciful metaphors. 

Description of the Crocodile. 

There are several species of Crocodile in different parts of 
the world, ten species at least being known to science. 

Some inhabit India, some tropical America, some Asia, and 
some Africa, so that the genus is represented in nearly all the 
warmer parts of the world. 

They are aU known by the formation of the teeth, the lower 
canines fitting each into a notch on the side of the upper jaw. 
The feet are webbed to the tips, and though the reptile mostly 
propels itself through the water by means of its tail, it can also 
paddle itself gently along by means of its feet. 

The teeth are all made for snatching and tearing, but not for 
masticating, the Crocodile swallowing its prey entire when pos- 
sible; and when the animal is too large to be eaten entire, the 
reptile tears it to pieces, and swallows the fragments without 
attempting to masticate them. 

In order to enable it to open its mouth under water, the back 



THE CROCODILE. 589 

of its throat is furnished with a very simple but beautiful con- 
trivance, whereby the water is received on a membranous valve 
and, in proportion to its pressure, closes the orifice of the throat 
As the Crocodiles mostly seize their prey in their open jaws and 
liold it under water until drowned, it is evident that without 
such a structure as has been described the Crocodile would be 
as likely to drown itself as its prey. But the throat-valve 
enables it to keep its mouth open while the water is effectually 
prevented from running down its throat, and the nostrils, placed 
at the end of the snout, enable it to breathe at its ease, while 
the unfortunate animal which it has captured is being drowned 
beneath the surface of the water. 

This position of the nostrils serves another purpose, and 
enables the Crocodile to breathe while the whole of its body is 
under the water, and only an inch or two of the very end of the 
snout is above the surface. As, moreover, the Crocodile, as is 
the case with most reptiles, is able to exist for a considerable 
time without breathing, it only needs to protrude its nostrils for 
a few moments, and can then sink entirely beneath the water. 
In this way the reptile is able to conceal itself in case it should 
suspect danger; and as, in such instances, it dives under tlie 
herbage of the river, and merely thrusts its nose into the air 
among the reeds and rushes, it is evident that, in spite of its 
enormous size, it baffles the observation of almost every foe. 

Among reptiles, the mailed Crocodiles may be mentioned as 
most formidable foes to man. Vast in bulk, yet grovelling with 
the belly on the earth ; clad in bony plates with sharp ridges ; 
green eyes with a peculiar fiery stare, gleaming out from below 
projecting orbits ; lips altogether wanting, displaying the long 
rows of interlocking teeth even when the mouth is closed, so 
that, even when quiet, the monster seems to be grinning with 
rage, — it is no wonder that the Crocodile should be, in all the 
countries which it inhabits, viewed with dread. 

Nor is this terror groundless. The Crocodiles, both of the Nile 
and of the Indian rivers, are well known to make man their 
victim, and scarcely can a more terrible fate be imagined than 
that of falling into the jaws of this gigantic reptile. Strange as 
it may appear, the Crocodile is one of the many animals to which 
divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians. This we learn 
from several sources. Herodotus, for example, in '' Euterpe," 



590 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS, 



chapter 69, writes as follows : " Those who dwell about Thebes and 
Lake Moeris, consider them to be very sacred ; and they each of 




A CROCODILE POOL OF AKCIENT EGYPT. 



them train up a Crocodile, which is taught to be quite tame ; and 
they put crystal and gold ear-rings into their ears, and bracelets 
on their fore-paws; and they give them appointed and sacred 
food, and treat them as well as possible while alive, and when 
dead, they embalm them, and bury them in sacred vaults." 

The reasons for this worship are several. At the root of them 
all lies the tendency of man to respect that which he fears 



THE CROCODILE. 



591 



rather than that which he loves ; and the nearer the man 
approaches the savage state, the more is this feeling developed. 
By this tendency his worship is regulated, and it will be found 
that when man is sufficiently advanced to be capable of worship 
at all, his reverence is invariably paid to the object which has 
the greatest terrors for him. The Crocodile, therefore, being the 
animal that was most dreaded by the ancient Egyptians, was 
accepted as the natural type of divinity. 




CROCODILES OS" THE UPPER NILE. 



Owing to the accuracy of the description in the Book of Job, 
which is evidently written by one who was personally acquainted 
with the Crocodile, it is thought by many commentators that the 
writer must have been acquainted with the JSTile, in which river 
both the Crocodile and hippopotamus are found at the present day. 

It is possible, however, that the hippopotamus and the Croco- 
dile have had at one time a much wider range than they at 
present enjoy. Even within the memory of man the hippo- 
potamus has been driven further and further up the Nile by 



592 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the encroachments of maji. It has long been said that even at the 
present day the Crocodile exists in Palestine in the river which 
is called " Nhar Zurka," which flows from Samaria through the 
plains of Sharon. Several of the older writers have mentioned 
its existence in this river, and, since this work was commenced, 
the long- vexed question has been set at rest; a Crocodile, eight 
feet in length, having been captured in the Nhar Zurka. 

No description of the Crocodile would be complete without allu- 
sion to the mode in which it seizes its prey. It does not attack 
it openly, neither, as some have said, does it go on shore for that 
purpose. It watches to see whether any animal comes to drink, 
and then, sinking beneath the surface of the water, dives rapidly, 
rises unexpectedly beneath the unsuspecting victim, seizes it 
with a sudden snap of its huge jaws, and drags it beneath the 
water. Should the intended prey be too far from the water to 
be reached by the mouth, or so large that it may offer a suc- 
cessful resistance, the Crocodile strikes it a tremendous blow 
with its tail, and knocks it into the water. The dwellers on the 
Nile bank say that a large Crocodile will with a single blow of 
its tail break all the four legs of an ox or a horse. 

These cunning reptiles even contrive to catch birds as they 
come for water. On- the banks of the Nile the smaller birds 
drink in a very peculiar manner. They settle in numbers on 
the flexible branches that overhang the stream, and when, by 
their weight, the branch bends downwards, they dip their beaks 
in the water. The Crocodile sees afar off a branch thus loaded, 
swims as near as possible, and then dives until it can see the 
birds immediately above it, when it rises suddenly, and with a 
snap of its jaws secures a whole mouthful of the unsuspecting 
birds. 

Sir S. Baker, in his travels on the Nile, gave much attention 
to the Crocodile, and has collected a great amount of interesting 
information about the reptile, much of which is peculiarly 
valuable, inasmuch as it illustrates the Scriptural notices of 
the creature. He states that it is a very crafty animal, and that 
its usual mode of attack is by first showing itself, then swim- 
ming slowly away to a considerable distance, so as to make its 
intended victim think that danger is over, and then returning 
under water. It is by means of this manoeuvre that it captures 
the little birds. It first makes a dash at them, open-mouthed, 



THE CROCODILE. 593 

causing them to take to flight in terror. It then sails slowly 
away as if it were so baffled that it did not intend to renew the 
attack. When it is at a considerable distance, the birds think 
that their enemy has departed, and return to the branch, wliich 
they crowd more than ever, and in a minute or two several dozen 
of them are engulfed in the mouth of the Crocodile, which has 
swiftly dived under them. 

On one occasion, Sir S. Baker was walking near the edge of 
the river, when he heard a great shrieking of women on the 
opposite bank. It turned out that a number of women had 
been filling their " gerbas " (water-skins), when one of them was 
suddenly attacked by a large Crocodile. She sprang back, and 
the reptile, mistaking the filled gerba for a woman, seized it, and 
gave the owner time to escape. It then dashed at the rest of 
the women, but only succeeded in seizing another gerba. 

A short time previously a Crocodile, thought by the nati> es 
to be the same individual, had seized a woman and carried her 
ojBf ; and another had made an attack on a man in a very curious 
manner. A number of men were swimming across the river, 
supported, after their custom, on gerbas inflated with air, when 
one of them felt himself seized by the leg by a Crocodile, which 
tried to drag him under water. He, however, retained his hold 
on the skin, and his companions also grasped his arms and hair 
with one hand, while with the other they struck with their 
spears at the Crocodile. At last they succeeded in driving the 
reptile away, and got their unfortunate companion to land, where 
they found that the whole of the flesh was stripped from the 
leg from the knee downwards. The poor man died shortly 
afterwards. 

Another traveller relates that three young men who were obliged 
to cross a branch of a river in their route, being unable to procure 
a boat, endeavoured to swim their horses to the opposite shore. 
Two of them had reached the bank in safety, but the third loitered 
so long on the brink as only to have just entered the water at the 
moment his comrades had reached the opposite side. When he 
was nearly half-way across, they saw a large Crocodile, which was 
known to infest this pass, issuing from under the reeds. They 
instantly warned their companion of his danger ; but it was too 
late for him to turn back. When the Crocodile was so close as 
to be on the point of seizing him, he threw his saddle-bag tu 



594 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

it. The ravenous animal immediately caught the whole bundle 
in its jaws, and disappeared for a few moments, but soon discov- 
ered its mistake, and rose in front of the horse, which, then seeing 
it for the first time, reared and threw its rider. He was an 
excellent swimmer, and had nearly escaped by diving towards 
the bank; but, on rising for breath, his pursuer also rose, and 
seized him by the middle. This dreadful scene, which passed 
before the eyes of his companions, without the least possibility 
of their rendering any assistance, was terminated by the Crocodile, 
having previously drowned the unfortunate man, appearing on 
an opposite sand-bank with the body, and there devouring it. 

The crafty Crocodile tries to catch the baboons by lying in 
wait for them at their drinking places; but the baboons are 
generally more than a match for the Crocodile in point of 
cunning and quickness of sight. Sir S. Baker witnessed an 
amusing example of such an attempt and its failure. 

" The large tamarind-trees on the opposite bank are generally 
full of the dog-faced baboons {GynocephaLiis) at their drinking 
hour. I watched a large Crocodile creep slily out of the water 
and lie in waiting among the rocks at the usual drinking place 
before they arrived, but the baboons were too wide awake to be 
taken in so easily. 

" A young fellow was the first to discover the enemy. He 
had accompanied several wise and experienced old hands to 
the extremity of a bough that at a considerable height over- 
hung the river; from this post they had a bird's eye view, 
and reconnoitred before one of the numerous party descended 
to drink. The sharp eyes of the young one at once detected 
the Crocodile, who matched in colour so well with the rocks 
that most probably a man would not have noticed it until 
too late. 

" At once the young one commenced shaking the bough and 
screaming with all his might, to attract the attention of the 
Crocodile and to induce it to move. In this he was immediately 
joined by the whole party, who yelled in chorus, while the large 
old males bellowed defiance, and descended to the lowest branches 
within eight or ten feet of the Crocodile. It was of no use — 
the pretender never stirred, and I watched it until dark. It 
remained still in the same place, waiting for some unfortunate 
bahoon whose thirst might provoke his fate, but not one was 



THE CROCODILE. 696 

sufficiently foolish, although the perpendicular bank prevented 
them from drinking except at that particular spot." 

It may be imagined that if the Crocodile were to depend 
entirely for its food upon the animals that it catches on the bank 
or in the river, it would run a risk of starving. The fact is, that 
its principal food consists of fish, which it can chase in the water. 
The great speed at which the Crocodile darts through the water 
is not owing to its webbed feet, but to its powerful tail, which 
is swept from side to side, and thus propels the reptile after 
the manner of a man " sculling " a boat with a single oar in 
the stern. The whales and the fishes have a similar mode of 
propulsion. 

On land, the tail is the Crocodile's most formidable weapon. 
It is one mass of muscle and sinew, and the force of its lateral 
stroke is terrible, sweeping away every living thing that it may 
meet. Fortunately for its antagonists, the Crocodile can turn 
but very slowly, so that, although it can scramble along at a 
much faster pace than its appearance indicates, there is no great 
difficulty in escaping, provided that the sweep of its tail be 
avoided. As the Crocodile of the Nile attains when adult a 
length of thirty feet, one moiety of which is taken up b}- the 
tail, it may easily be imagined that the power of this weapon 
can scarcely be exaggerated. 

As if to add to the terrors of the animal, its head, back, and 
tail are shielded by a series of homy scales, which are set so 
closely together that the sharpest spear can seldom find its way 
through them, and even the rifle ball glances off, if it strikes 
them obliquely. Like many other reptiles, the Crocodile is 
hatched from eggs which are laid on shore and vivified by the 
warmth of the sun. 

These eggs are exceedingly small when compared with the 
gigantic lizard which deposited them, scarcely equalling in 
dimensions those of the goose. There is now before me an egg 
of the cayman of South America, a fresh-water lizard but little 
smaller than the Crocodile of the Nile, and tliis is barely equal 
in size to an ordinary hen's egg. It is longer in proportion to 
its width, but the contents of the two eggs would be as nearly 
as possible of the same bulk. On the exterior it is very rough, 
having a granulated appearance, not unlike that of dried shark- 
skin, and the shell is exceedingly thin and brittle. The lining 



596 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

membrane, however, i& singularly thick and totigh, so that thfc 

Q^g is tolerably well defended against fracture. 

When hrst hatched, the young Crocodile is scarcely larger 
than a common newt, but it attains most formidable dimensions 
in a very short time. Twenty or thirty eggs are laid in one 
spot, and, were they not destroyed by sundry enemies, the 
Crocodiles would destroy every living creature in the rivers. 
Fortunately, the eggs and young have many enemies, chiefly 
among which is the well-known ichneumon, which discovers tlie 
place where the eggs are laid and destroys them, and eats any 
young Crocodiles that it can catch before they succeed in making 
their way to the water. 

The old writers were aware of the services rendered by the 
ichneumon, but, after their wont, exaggerated them by additions 
of their own, saying that the ichneumon enters into the mouth 
of the Crocodile as it lies asleep, and eats its way through the 
body, " putting the Crocodile to exquisite and intolerable torment, 
wliile the Crocodile tumbleth to and fro, sighing and weeping, 
now in the depth of water, now on the land, never resting till 
strength of nature failetk For the incessant gnawing of the 
ichneumon so provoketh her to seek her rest in the unrest of 
every part, herb, element, throws, throbs, rollings, but all in 
vain, for the enemy within her breatheth through her breath, 
and sporteth herself in the consumption of those vital parts 
which waste and wear away by yielding to unpacihcable teeth, 
one after another, till she that crept in by stealth at the mouth, 
like a puny thief, comes, out at the belly like a conqueror, 
through a passage opened by her own labour and industry." 

The author has in the long passage, a part of which is here 
quoted, mentioned that the ichneumon takes its opportunity of 
entering the jaws of the Crocodile as it lies with its mouth open 
against the beams of the sun. It is very true that the Crocodile 
does sleep with its mouth open ; and, in all probability, the 
older observers, knowing that the ichneumon did really destroy 
the eggs and young of the Crocodile, only added a little am.pli- 
fication, and made up their minds that it also destroyed the 
parents. The same writer who has lately been quoted ranks the 
ibis among the enemies of the Crocodile, and says that the bird 
affects the reptile with such terror that, if but an ibis's feather 
be laid on its back, the Crocodile becomes rigid and unable to 



598 STORY OF TBE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

move. The Arabs of the present time say that the water-tortoises 
are enemies to the eggs, scratching them out of the sand and eat- 
ing them. 

As this reptile is so dangerous a neighbour to the inhabitants 
of the river-banks, many means have been adopted for its de- 
struction. 

One such method, where a kind of harpoon is employed, is 
described by a traveller in the East as follows: — 

" The most favourable season for thus hunting the Crocodile is 
either the winter, when the animal usually sleeps on sand-banks, 
luxuriating in the rays of the sun, or the spring, after the pairing 
time, when the female regularly watches the sand islands where 
she has buried her eggs. 

" The native hunter finds out the place and conceals himself by 
digging a hole in the sand near the spot where the animal usually 
lies. On its arrival at the accustomed spot the hunter darts his 
harpoon or spear with all his force, for, in order that its stroke 
may be successful, the iron should penetrate to a depth of at least 
four inches, in order that the barb may be fixed firmly in the flesh. 

" The Crocodile, on being wounded, rushes into the water, and 
the huntsman retreats into a canoe, with which a companion has 
hastened to his assistance. 

" A piece of wood attached to the harpoon by a long cord swims 
on the water and shows the direction in which the Crocodile is 
moving. The hunters pull on this rope and drag the beast to the 
surface of the water, where it is again pierced by a second har- 
poon. 

" When the animal is struck it by no means remains inactive ; 
on the contrary, it lashes instantly with its tail, and endeavours to 
bite the rope asunder. To prevent this, the rope is made of about 
thirty separate slender lines, not twisted together, but merely placed 
in juxtaposition, and bound around at intervals of every two feet. 
The thin strands get between the Crocodile's teeth, and it is unable 
to sever them. 

" In spite of the great strength of the reptile, two men can drag 
a tolerably large one out of the water, tie up his mouth, twist his 
legs over his back, and kill him by driving a sharp steel spike into 
the spinal cord just at the back of the skull. 

" There are many other modes of capturing the Crocodile, one 
of which is the snare portrayed in the illustration. 




A CROCODILE TRAP 



600 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

^' Two elastic saplings are bent down and kept in position by 
stout cords, one of which bears a baited hook, while the other is 
fashioned into a noose. These cords are so arranged as to release 
the bent saplings as soon as the Crocodile pulls upon the baited 
hook. If all works properly, the animal suddenly finds himself 
suspended in the air, where he remains helpless and at the mercy 
of the hunter, who soon arrives and despatches him. 

" The extreme tenacity of life possessed by the Crocodile is well 
exemplified by an incident which occurred in Ceylon. A fine 
specimen had been caught, and to all appearance killed, its inte- 
rior parts removed, and the aperture kept open by a stick placed 
across it. A few hours afterwards the captors returned to their 
victim with the intention of cutting oflf the head, but were sur- 
prised to find the spot vacant. On examining the locality it was 
evident that the creature had retained sufficient life to crawl back 
into the water. From this it may be imagined that it is no easy 
matter to drive the breath out of a Crocodile. Its life seems to 
take a separate hold of every fibre in the creature's body, and 
though pierced through and through with bullets, crushed by 
heavy blows, and its body converted into a very pincushion for 
spears, it writhes, and twists and struggles with wondrous strength, 
snapping savagely with its huge jaws, and lashing its muscular 
tail from side to side with such vigour that it requires a bold 
man to venture within range of that terrible weapon." 

Sometimes combats occur between this creature and the tiger, 
one of the fiercest and most terrible of all quadrupeds. Tigers 
frequently go down to the rivers to drink, and, upon these occa- 
sions, the Crocodile, if near, may attempt to seize them. The 
ferocious beast, however, seldom falls unrevenged ; for the instant 
he finds himself seized, he turns with great agility and fierceness 
on his enemy, and endeavours to strike his claws into the Croc- 
odile's eyes, while the latter drags him into the water, where they 
continue to struggle until the tiger be drowned, and his triumphant 
antagonist feasts upon his carcass. Such a combat is depicted in 
the illustration which appears on an accompanying page. 




A FKJUT I'OU LIFI' 



26 




THE CYPHtlTS, OR UZARD OF 30RIPTUUI:. 



THE LETAAH OR LIZARD. 



Difficulty of identifying the Letfi^li — Probability that it is a collective and not a 
specific term — Various Lizards of Palestine — The Green or Jersey Lizard — The 
Cyprius, its appearance and habits — The Glass Snake or Scheltopusic — Trans- 
lation of the word chomct — Probability that it signifies the Skink — Medicinal 
uses of the Lizard — The Seps tribe — The common Cicigna, and the popular 
belief conccniing its habits — The Sphaenops and its shallow tunnel. 



In Leviticus xi. 30, the word Lizakd is used as the rendering of 
the Hebrew word letddh (pronounced as L'tah-ah). There are 
one or two difficulties about the word, but, without going into 
the question of etymology, which is beside the object of tliis 
work, it will be sufficient to state that the best authorities accept 
the rendering, and that in the Jewish Bible the word Lizard is 
retained, but with the mark of doubt appended to it. 

A VERY common species of Lizard, and therefore likely to be 
one of those which are grouped under the common name of Letaah, 

602 



THE LIZARD. 60S 

13 the Cyprius {Plestiodon auratum). This handsome Lizard is 
golden -yellow in colour, beautifully spotted with orange and 
scarlet, and may be distinguished, even when the colours have 
fleni after death, by the curiously formed ears, which are strongly 
toothed in front. It is . very plentiful in Palestine, and, like 
others of its kin, avoids cultivated tracts, and is generally found 
on rocky and sandy soil which cannot be tilled. It is active, 
and, if alarmed, hides itself quickly in the sand or under stones. 

It belongs to the great family of the Skinks, many of which, 
like the familiar blind-worm of our own country, are without 
external legs, and, though true Lizards, progress in a snake-like 
manner, and are generally mistaken for snakes. One of these is 
the Glass Snake or Scheltopusic {Pseudopus pallasii), which 
has two very tiny hind legs, but which is altogether so snake- 
like that it is considered by the natives to be really a serpent. 
They may well be excused for their error, as the only external 
indications of limbs are a pair of slightly-projecting scales at the 
place where the hind legs would be in a fully-developed Lizard. 

Though tolerably plentiful, the Scheltopusic is not very often 
seen, as it is timid and wary, and, when it suspects danger, glides 
away silently into some place of safety. When adult, the colour 
of this Lizard is usually chestnut, profusely mottled with black 
or deep brown, the edge of each scale being of the darker colour. 
It feeds upon insects and small reptiles, and has been known to 
devour a nest full of young birds. 

In Levit. xi. 30 is a Hebrew word, chomet, which is given in 
the Authorized Version as Snail, There is, however, no doubt 
that the word is wrongly translated, and that by it some species 
of Lizard is signified. The Jewish Bible follows the Authorized 
Version, but affixes the mark of doubt to the word. There is 
another word, shahlul, which undoubtedly does signify the snail, 
and will be mentioned in its proper place. 

It is most probable that the word chomet includes, among 
other Lizards, many of the smaller Skinks which inhabit Pales- 
tine. Among them we may take as an example the Common 
Skink (Scincus officinalis), a reptile which derives its specific 
name from the fact that it was formerly used in medicine, 
together with mummy, and the other disgusting inoredienta 
'vhich formed the greater part of the old Pharmacc tpceia. 



604 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Even at the present day, it is used for similar purposes in the 
East, and is in consequence captured for the use of physicians, 
the body being simply dried in the sun, and then sent to market 
for sale. It is principally employed for the cure of sunstroke, 
nettle-rash, sand-blindness, or fever, and both patient and physi- 
cian have the greatest confidence in its powers. It is said by 
some European physicians that the flesh of the Skink really 
does possess medicinal powers, and that it has fallen into dis- 
repute chiefly because those powers have been exaggerated. In 
former days, the head and feet were thought to possess the 
greatest efficacy, and were valued accordingly. 

Like all its tribe, the Skink loves sandy locahties, the soil 
exactly suiting its peculiar habits. Although tolerably active, it 
does not run so fast or so far as many other Lizards, and, when 
alarmed, it has a pecidiar faculty for sinking itself almost instan- 
taneously under the sand, much after the fashion of the shore- 
crabs of our own country. Indeed, it is even more expeditious 
than the crab, which occupies some little time in burrowing 
under the wet and yielding sand, whereas the Skink slips 
beneath the dry and comparatively hard sand with such rapidity 
that it seems rather to be diving into a nearly excavated burrow 
than to be scooping a hollow for itself. 

The sand is therefore a place of safety to the Skink, which 
does not, like the crab, content itself with merely burying its 
body just below .the surface, but continues to burrow, sinking 
itself in a few seconds to the depth of nearly a yard. 

The length of the Skink is about eight inches, and its very 
variable colour is generally yellowish brown, crossed with several 
dark bands. Several specimens, however, are spotted instead of 
banded with brown, while some are banded with white, and 
others are spotted with white. In all, however, the under- 
gnrface is silver grey. 




IllK ClIAMKLKON. 



THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO. 

Deiiieanour of *.he Chameleon on the ground — The independent eyes — Its frequent 
change of colour — The Nilotic Monitor. 

In Levit. xi. 30 there occurs a word which has caused great 
trouble to comiiieiitators. The word is koach. 

There are two lizards to which tlie term may possibly be 
applied — namely, the Chameleon and the Monitor ; and, as the 
Authorized Version of the Scriptures accepts the former inter- 
pretation, we will first describe the Chameleon. 



This reptile is very plentiful in the Holy Land, as well as in 
Egypt, so that the Israelites would be perfectly familiar with it, 
both during their captivity and after their escape. It is but a 
small reptile, and the reader may well ask why a name denoting 
strength should be given to it. I think that we may find the 
reason for its name in the extraordinary power of its grasp, as it 
is able, by means of its peculiarly -formed feet and prehensile tail, 
to grasp the branches so tightly that it can scarcely be removed 
without damage. 

I once saw six or seven Chameleons huddled up together, all 
having clasped each othei-'s legs and tails so firmly that they 

<}05 



606 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



formed a bundle that might be rolled along the ground without 
being broken up. In order to show the extraordinary power oi 
the Chameleon's grasp, I have had a figure drawn from a sketch 




QECKO AND CHAMELEOJii 



taken by myself from a specimen which I kept for several 
months. 

When the Chameleon wished to pass from one branch to 
another, it used to hold firmly to the branch by the tail and one 
hind-foot, and stretch out its body nearly horizontally, feeling 
about with the other three feet, as if in search of a convenient 
resting-place. In this curious attitude it would remain for a 
considerable time, apparently suffering no inconvenience, though 
even the spider-monkey would have been unable to maintain 
sucli an attitude for half the length of time. 

The strength of the grasp is really astonishing when con- 



THE CHAMELEON. 607 

trasted with the size of the reptile, as any one will find who 
allows the Chameleon to grasp his finger, or who tries to detach 
it from tlie branch to which it is clinging. The feet are most 
curiously made. They are furnished with five toes, which are 
arranged like those of paiTots and other climbing birds, so as to 
close upon each other like the thumb and finger of a human 
hand. They are armed with little yellow claws, slightly curved 
and very sharp, and when they grasp the skin of the hand they 
give it an unpleasantly sharp pinch. 

The tail is as prehensile as that of the spider-monkey, to 
which the Chameleon beara a curious resemblance in some of 
its attitudes, though nothing can be more different than the 
volatile, inquisitive, restless disposition of the spider- monkey 
and the staid, sober demeanour of the Chameleon. The reptile 
has the power of guiding the tail to any object as correctly as if 
there were an eye at the end of the tail. When it has been 
travelling over the branches of trees, I have often seen it direct 
its tail to a projecting bud, and grasp it as firmly as if the bud 
had been before and not behind it. 

Sometimes, when it rests on a branch, it allows the tail to 
hang down as a sort of balance, the tip coiling and uncoiling 
unceasingly. But, as soon as the reptile wishes to move, the 
tail is tightened to the branch, and at once coiled round it. 
There really seems to be almost a separate vitality and con- 
sciousness on the part of the tail, which glides round an object 
as if it were acting with entire independence of its owner. 

On the ground the Chameleon fares but poorly. Its walk is 
absolutely ludicrous, and an experienced person might easily 
fail to identify a Chameleon when walking with the same 
animal on a branch. It certainly scrambles along at a toler- 
able rate, but it is absurdly aw^kward, its legs sprawling 
widely on either side, and its feet grasping futilely at every 
step The tail, which is usually so lithe and nimble, is then 
held stiffly from the body, with a slight curve upwards. 

The eyes are strange objects, projecting far from the head, 
and each acting quite independently of the other, so that one 
eye may often be directed forwards, and the other backwards. 
The eyeballs are covered with a thick wrinkled skin, except a 
small aperture at the tip, which can be opened and closed like 
our own eyelids. 



608 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANI3IALS. 

The changing colour of the Chameleon has been long known, 
though there are many mistaken ideas concerning it. 

The reptile does not necessarily assume the colour of any 
object on which it is placed, but sometimes takes a totally 
different colour. Thus, if my Chameleon happened to come 
upon any scarlet substance, the colour immediately became 
black, covered with innumerable circular spots of light yellow. 
The change was so instantaneous that, as it crawled on the 
scarlet cloth, the colour would alter, and the fore-part of the 
body would be covered with yellow spots, while the hinder 
parts retained their dull black. Scarlet always annoyed the 
Chameleon, and it tried to escape whenever it found itself 
near any substance of the obnoxious hue. 

The normal colour was undoubtedly black, with a slight tinge 
of grey. But in a short time the whole creature would become 
a vivid verdigris green, and, while the spectator was watching it, 
the legs would become banded with rings of bright yellow, and 
spots and streaks of the same colour would appear on the head 
and body. 

When it was excited either by anger or by expectation — as, 
for example, when it heard a large fly buzzing near it — the 
colours were singularly beautiful, almost exactly resembling in 
hue and arrangement those of the jaguar. Of all the colom-s, 
green seemed generally to predominate, but the creature would 
pass so rapidly from one colour to another that it was scarcely 
possible to follow the various gradations of hue. 

Some persons have imagined that the variation of colour 
depends on the wants and passions of the animal. This is not 
the case. The change is often caused by mental emotion, but is 
not dependent on it; and I believe that the animal has no 
control whatever over its colour. The best proof of this assertion 
may be found in the fact that my own Chameleon changed 
colour several times after its death ; and, indeed, as long as 
I had the dead body before me, changes of hue were taking 
place. 

The food of the Chameleon consists of insects, mostly flies, 
which it catches by means of its tongue, which can be protruded 
to an astonishing distance. The tongue is nearly cylindrical, 
and is furnished at the tip with a slight cavity, which is filled 
with a very glutinous secretion. When the Chameleon sees a 



THE (JIIAMKLEON. 



iU) . 




26* 



610 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

fly or other insect, it gently protrudes the tongue once or twice, 
as if taking aim, like a billiard-player with his cue, and then, 
with a moderately smart stroke, carries off the insect on the 
glutinous tip of the tongue. The force with which the Chameleon 
strikes is really wonderful. My own specimen used to look for 
flies from my hand, and at first I was as much surprised with 
the force of the blow struck by the tongue as I was with the 
grasping power of the feet. 

So much for the Chameleon. We will now take the Nilotic 
Monitor and the Land Monitor, the other reptiles which have 
been conjectured to be the real representatives of the Koach. 

These lizards attain to some size, the former sometimes mea- 
suring six feet in length, and the latter but a foot or so less. Of 
the two, the Land Monitor, being the more common, both in 
Palestine and Egypt, has perhaps the best claim to be considered 
as the Koach of Scripture. It is sometimes called the Land 
Crocodile. It is a carnivorous animal, feeding upon other rep- 
tiles and the smaller mammalia, and is very fond of the eggs of 
the crocodile, v^^hich it destroys in great numbers, and is in con- 
sequence much venerated by the inhabitants of the country 
about the Nile. 

The theory that this reptile may be the Koach of Leviticus is 
strengthened by the fact that even at the present day it is 
cooked and eaten by the natives, whereas the chameleon is so 
small and bony that scarcely any one would take the trouble of 
cooking it. 

The Gecko takes its name from the sound which it utters, 
resembling the word "geck-o." It is exceedingly plentiful, and 
inhabits the interior of houses, where it can find the flies and 
other insects on which it lives. On account of the structure of 
the toes, each of which is flattened into a disk-like form, and 
furnished on the under surface with a series of plates like those 
on the back of the sucking-fish, it can walk up a smooth, perpen- 
dicular wall with perfect ease, and can even cling to the ceiling 
like the flies on which it feeds. 

In the illustration the reader' will observe the flat, fan-like 
expansions at the ends of the toes, by which the Gecko is able 
to adhere to flat surfaces, and to dart with silent rapidity from 
place to place. 



SERPENTS 





SERPENTS. 



Serpents in general — The fiery Serpents of the wilderness — Ex})lanation of the 
words "flying" and "fiery" as applied to Serpents — Haunts of the Serpent — 
The Cobra, or Asp of Soripture — The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent — Appearance 
and habits of the reptile — The " Adder in the path." 

As we have seen that so much looseness of nomenclature pre- 
vailed among the Hebrews even with regard to the mammalia, 
birds, and lizards, we can but expect that the names of the 
Serpents will be equally difficult to identify. 

No less than seven names are employed in the Old Testament 
to denote some species of Serpent ; but there are only two which 
can be identified with any certainty, four others being left to 

613 



614 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

mere conjecture, and one being clearly a word which, like oai 
snake or serpent, is a woid not restricted to any particular 
species, but signifying Serpents in general. This word is ndckdsh 
(pronounced nah-kahsh). It is unfortunate that the word is so 
variously translated in different passages of Scripture, and we 
cannot do better than to follow it through the Old Testament, so 
as to bring all the passages u.nder our glance. 

The first mention of the N^ch^h occurs in Gen. iii., in the 
well-known passage where the Serpent is said to be more subtle 
than all the beasts of the field, the wisdom or subtlety of ths 
Serpent having evidently an allegorical and not a categorical 
signification. We find the same symbolism employed in the 
New Testament, the disciples of our Lord being told to be ". wise 
as serpents, and harmless ds doves." 

Allusion is made to the gliding movement of the Serpent tribe 
in Prov. xxx. 19. On this part of the subject little need be said, 
except that the movements of the Serpent are owing to the 
mobility of the ribs, which are pushed forward in succession and 
drawn back again, so as to catch against any inequality of the 
ground. This power is increased by the structure of the scales. 
Those of the upper part of the body, which are not used foi 
locomotion, are shaped something like the scales of a fish ; but 
those of the lower part of the body, which come in contact with 
the ground, are broad belts, each overlapping the other, and each 
connected with one pair of ribs. 

When, therefore, the Serpent pushes forward the ribs, the 
edges of the scaly belts will catch against the slightest pro- 
jection, and are able to give a very powerful impetus to the 
body. It is scarcely possible to drag a snake backwards over 
rough ground ; while on a smooth surface, such as glass, the 
Serpent would be totally unable to proceed. This, however, was 
not likely to have been studied by the ancient Hebrews, who 
were among the most unobservant of mankind with regard to 
details of natural history : it is, therefore, no wonder that the 
gliding of the Serpent should strike the writer of the proverb in 
question as a mystery which he could not explain. 

The poisonous nature of some of the Serpents is mentioned in 
several passages of Scripture ; and it will be seen that the ancient 
Hebrews, like many modern Europeans, believed that the poison 
lay in the forked tongue. See, for example, Ps. Iviii. 4 : " Their 



SERPENTS. 



()le5 



poison is like tlic poison of a serpent" {ndchdsh). Also Prov. 
xxiii. 32, in which the sacred writer says of wine tliat it brings 
woe, sorrow, contentions, wounds witliout cause, redness of eyes, 
and that " at the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like 
an adder." 




COnRA AND CERASTRS, THE ASP AND ADDr.R OF OCRIPTUnR. 



The idea that the poison of the Serpent lies in the longue is 
seen in several passages of Scripture. " They have sharpened 
their tongues like a serpent ; adders' poison is under their lips " 
(Ps. cxI 3). Also in Job xx. 16, the sacred writer says of the 
h}'pocrite, that " he sh<\.U suck the poison of asps : the viper's 
t(>ngue shall slay him." 

As to the fiery Serpents of the wilderness, it is scarcely needful 
to mention that the epithet of " fiery " does not signify that the 
Serpents in question produced real fire from their mouths, but 
that allusion is made to the power and virulence of their poison^ 



616 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



and to the pain caused by their bite. We ourselves naturally 
employ a similar metaphor, and speak of a " burning pain," of a 
" fiery trial/' of " hot anger," and the like. 




THE ISKAELITES ARK BITTEN BY SEKPEKTS IN THE WILUEKXESS, AND MOSES LIETS 
UP THE SERPENT OF BRASS. 



The epithet of " flying " which is applied to these Serpents is 
explained by the earlier commentators as having reference to a 
Serpent Avhich they called the Dart Snake, and which they 
believed to lie in wait for men and to spring at them from a 
distance. They thought that this snake hid itself either in 
hollows of the ground or in trees, and sprang through the air 
for thirty feet upon any man or beast that happened to pass by. 

We will now take the various species of Serpents mentioned 
in the Bible, as nearly as they can be identified. 

Of one species there is no doubt whatever. This is the Cobra 
di Capello, a serpent which is evidently signified by the Hebrew 
word pethen. 

This celebrated Serpent has long been famous, not only for the 



SERPENTS. 017 

deadly power of its venom, but for the singular performances in 
which it takes part. The Cobra inhabits many parts of Asia, and 
in almost every place where it is found, certain daring men take 
upon themselves the profession of serpent-charmers, and handle 
these fearful reptiles with impunity, cause them to move in time 
to certain musical sounds, and assert that tiiey bear a life charmed 
against the bite of these deadly playmates. 

One of these men will take a Cobra in his bare hands, toss it 
about with perfect indifference, allow it to twine about his naked 
breast, tie it around his neck, and treat it with as little ceremony 
as if it were an earth-worm. He will then take the same Serpent — 
or apparently the same — make it bite a fowl, which soon dies from 
the poison, and will then renew his performance. 

Some persons say that the whole affair is but an exhibition of 
that jugglery in which the natives of the East Indies are such 
wondrous adepts ; that the Serpents with which the man plays are 
harmless, having been deprived of their fangs, and that a really 
venomous specimen is adroitly substituted for the purpose of kill- 
ing the fowl. It is, moreover, said, and truly, that a snake thought 
to have been rendered harmless by the deprivation of its fangs, 
has bitten one of its masters and killed him, thus proving the 
imposture. 

Still, neither of these explanations will entirely disprove the 
mastery of man over a venomous Serpent. 

In the first instance, it is surely as perilous an action to substi- 
tute a venomous Serpent as to play with it. Where was it hidden, 
why did it not bite the man instead of the fowl, and how did the 
juggler prevent it from using its teeth while he was conveying it 
away ? 

And, in the second instance, the detection of one impostor is by 
no means a proof that all who pretend to the same powers are 
likewise impostors. 

The following narrative by a traveller in the East seems to 
prove that the serpent-charmer possessed sufficient power to induce 
a truly poisonous Serpent to leave its hole, and to perform certain 
antics at his command : 

"A snake-charmer came to my bungalow, requesting me to 
allow him to show his snakes. As I had frequently seen his 
performance, I declined to witness a repetition of it, but told 
him that if he would accompany me to the jungle and catch a 



618 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Cobra, that I knew frequented the place, I would give him a 
present of money. He was quite willing, and as I was anxious 
to test the truth of the charm he claimed to possess, I carefully 
counted his tame snakes, and put a guard over them until we 
should return. 

" Before starting I also examined his clothing, and satisfied 
myself that he had no snake about his person. When we arrived 
at the spot, he commenced playing upon a small pipe, and, after 
persevering for some time, out crawled a large Cobra from an 
ant-hill which I knew it occupied. 

On seeing the man it tried to escape, but he quickly caught it 
by the tail and kept swinging it round until we reached the bun- 
galow. He then laid it upon the ground and made it raise and 
lower its head to the sound of his pipe. 

Before long, however, it bit him above the knee. He immediate- 
ly bandaged the leg tightly above the wound, and applied a piece 
of porous stone, called a snake-stone, to extract the poison. He was 
in great pain for a few minutes, but afterwards it gradually sub- 
sided, the stone falling from the wound just before he was relieved. 

When he recovered he held up a cloth, at which the snake flew 
and hung by its fangs. While in this position the man passed his 
hand up its back, and having seized it tightly by the throat, he 
pulled out the fangs and gave them to me. He then squeezed out 
the poison, from the glands in the Serpent's mouth, upon a leaf 
It was a clear, oily substance, which when rubbed with the hand 
produced a fine lather. 

" The whole operation was carefully watched by me, and was. 
also witnessed by several other persons." 

How the serpent-charmers perform their feats is not very 
intelligible. That they handle the most venomous Serpents with 
perfect impunity is evident enough, and it is also clear that they 
are able to produce certain effects upon the Serpents by means 
of musical (or unmusical) sounds. But these two items are 
esitirely distinct, and one does not depend upon the other. 

In the first place, the handling of venomous snakes has been 
performed by 'ordinary men without the least recourse to any 
arts except that of acquaintance with the habits of Serpents. 
The late Mr. Waterton, for example, would take up a rattlesnake 
in his bare hand without feeling the least uneasy as to the 
behaviour of his prisoner. He once took twenty-seven rattle- 



SEEPENTS. 



619 



^'^mm 




THE 8EUPENT-CHARMEII. 



620 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

snakes out of a box, carried them into another room, put them 
into a large glass case, and afterwards replaced them in tlie 
box. He described to me the manner in which he did it, using 
my wrist as the representative of the Serpent. 

The nature of all Serpents is rather peculiar, and is probably 
owing to the mode in which the blood circulates. They are 
extremely unwilling to move, except when urged by the wants of 
nature, and wiU lie coiled up for many hours together wlien 
not pressed by hunger. Consequently, when touched, their 
feeling is evidently like that of a drowsy man, who only tries 
to shake off the object which may rouse him, and composes 
himself afresh to sleep. 

A quick and sudden movement would, however, alarm the 
reptile, which would strike in self-defence, and, sluggish as are 
its general movements, its stroke is delivered with such light- 
ning rapidity that it would be sure to inflict its fatal wound 
before it was seized. 

If, therefore, Mr. Waterton saw a Serpent which he desired to 
catch, he would creep very quietly up to it, and with a gentle, 
slow movement place his fingers round its neck just behind the 
head. If it happened to be coiled up in such a manner that he 
could not get at its neck, he had only to touch it gently until it 
moved sufficiently for his purpose. 

When he had once placed his hand on the Serpent, it was 
in his power. He would then grasp jt very lightly indeed, 
and raise it gently from the ground, trusting that the reptile 
would be more inclined to be carried quietly than to summon 
up sufficient energy to bite. Even if it had tried to use its 
fangs, it could not have done so as long as its captor's fingers 
were round its neck. 

As a rule, a great amount of provocation is needed before a 
venomous Serpent will use its teeth. One of my friends, when 
a boy, caught a viper, mistaking it for a common snake. He 
tied it round his neck, coiled it on his wrist by way of a bracelet, 
and so took it home, playing many similar tricks with it as he 
went. After arrival in the house, he produced the viper for the 
amusement of his brothers and sisters, and, after repeating his 
performances, tried to tie the snake in a double knot. This, how- 
ever, was enough to provoke the most pacific of creatures, and in 
consequence he received a bite on his finger. 



SERPENTS. 



621 



The poison was not slow to take effect ; first, the wound looked 
and felt like a nettle sting, then like a wasp sting, and in the 
course of a few minutes the whole finger was swollen. At this 
juncture his father, a medical man, fortunately arrived, and set 
the approved antidotes, ammonia, oil, and lunar caustic, to tlie 
wound, having previously made incisions about the punctured 
spot, and with paternal affection attempted to suck out the poison. 
In spite of these remedies a serious illness was the result of the 
bite, from which the boy did not recover for several weeks 




There is no doubt that the snake-charmers trust chiefly to 
this sluggish nature of the reptile, but they certainly go through 
some ceremonies by which they believe themselves to be ren- 
dered impervious to snake-bites. They will coil the cobra round 
their naked bodies, they will irritate the reptile until it is in a 
state of fury ; they will even allow it to bite them, and yet be 
none the worse for the wound. Then, as if to show that the 
venomous teeth have not been abstracted, as is possibly sup- 
posed to be the case, they will make the cobra bite a fowl, 
which speedily dies from the effects of the poison. 

Even if the fangs were extracted, the Serpents would lose 
little of their venomous power. These reptiles are furnished 
with a whole series of fangs in different stages of development, 
so that when the one in use is broken or shed in the course of 
nature, another comes forward and fills its place. There is now 
before me a row of four fangs, which I took from the riglit upj)er 
jawbone of a vi])ei- which I recently onught. 



622 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

In her interesting " Letters from Egypt/' Lady Duff-Gordon 
gives an amusing account of the manner in which she was 
formally initiated into the mysteries of snake-charming, and 
made ever afterwards impervious to the bite of venomous 
Serpents : — 

" At K6m Oniboo, we met with a Eifaee darweesh with his 
basket of tame snakes. After a little talk, he proposed to 
initiate me : and so we sat down and held hands like people 
marrying. Omar [her attendant] sat behind me, and repeated 
the words as my 'wakeel.' Then the Eifaee twisted a cobra 
round our joined hands, and requested me to spit on it ; he did 
the same, and I was pronounced safe and enveloped in snakes. 
My sailors groaned, and Omar shuddered as the snakes put out 
their tongues; the darweesh and I smiled at each other like 
Eoman augurs." 

She believed that the snakes were toothless ; and perhaps on 
this occasion they may have been so. Extracting the teeth of 
the Serpent is an easy business in experienced hands, and is 
conducted in two ways. Those snake-charmers who are con- 
fident of their own powers merely gi-asp the reptile by the neck, 
force open its jaws with a piece of stick, and break off the fangs, 
which are but loosely attached to the jaw. Those who are not 
so sure of themselves irritate the snake, and offer it a piece of 
cloth, generally the corner of their mantle, to bite. The snake 
darts at it, and, as it seizes the garment, tl>e man gives the cloth 
a sudden jerk, and so tears away the fangs. 

Still, although some of the performers employ mutilated 
snakes, there is no doubt that others do not trouble themselves 
to remove the fangs of the Serpents, but handle with impunity 
the cobra or the cerastes with all its venomous apparatus in 
good order. 

We now come to the second branch of the subject, namely, 
the influence of sound upon the cobra and other Serpents. The 
charmers are always provided with musical instruments, of 
which a sort of flute with a loud shrill sound is the one which 
is mostly used in the performances. Having ascertained, from 
slight marks which their practised eyes easily discover, that 
a Serpent is hidden in some crevice, the charmer plays upon his 
flute, and in a short time the snake is sure to make ita 
appearance. 



SERPENTS. 



623 



As soon as it is fairly out, tlie man seizes it by the end of the 
tail, and holds it up in the air at arm's lengtli. In this position 
it is helpless, having no leverage, and merely wriggles about in 
fruitless struggles to escape. Having allowed it to exhaust its 
strength by its efforts, the man lowers it into a basket, where it 
is only too glad to find a refuge, and closes the lid. After a 
wdiile, he raises the lid and begins to play the flute. 

The Serpent tries to glide out of the basket, but, as soon as it 
does so, the lid is shut down again, and in a very short time the 
reptile finds that escape is impossible, and, as long as it hears 




TEACIIINU COUUAH TO DANCE. 



the sound of the flute, only raises its head in the air, supporling 
itself on the lower portion of its tail, and continue,'; to wave itn 
head from side to side as long as it hears the sound of tlie nuitjic. 



624 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The rapidity with which a cobra learns this lesson is extra- 
ordinary, the charmers being as willing to show their mastery 
over newly-caught Serpents as over those which have been 
long in their possession. 

The colour of the Cobra is in most cases a brownish olive. The 
most noted peculiarity is the expansion of the neck, popularly 
called the hood. This phenomenon is attributable not only to 
the skin and muscles, but to the skeleton. About twenty pairs of 
the ribs of the neck and fore part of the back are flat instead of 
curved, and increase gradually from the head to the eleventh or 
twelfth pail', from which they decrease until they are merged into 
the ordinary curved ribs of the body. When the snake is excited, 
it brings these ribs forward so as to spread the skin, and then dis- 
plays the oval hood to best advantage. 

In the Cobra di Capello the back of the hood is ornamented by 
two large eye-like spots, united by a curved black stripe, so formed 
that the whole mark bears a singular resemblance to a pair of 
spectacles. 



THE CERASTES, OR SHEPHIPHON OF SCRIPTURE. 

The word shephiphon, which evidently signifies some species 
of snake, only occurs once in the Scriptures, but fortunately 
that single passage contains an allusion to the habits of the 
serpent which makes identification nearly certain. The passage- 
in question occurs in Gen. xlix. 17, and forms part of the 
prophecy of Jacob respecting his children : " Dan shall be a 
serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horse's 
heels, so that his rider shall fall backward." 

Putting aside the deeper meaning of this prophecy, there 
is here an evident allusion to the habits of the Ceeastes, 
or HoENED Viper, a species of venomous serpent, which is 
plentiful in Northern Africa, and is found also in Palestine 
and Syria. It is a very conspicuous reptile, and is easily 
recognised by the two horn-like projections over the eyes. The 



THE CERASTES. 



625 



name Cerastes, or horned, has been given to it on account of 
these projections. 

This snake has a custom of lying half buried in the sand, 
awaiting the approach of some animal on which it can feed. 
Its usual diet consists of the jerboas and other small mammalia, 
and as they are exceedingly active, while the Cerastes is slow 
and sluggish, its only chance of obtaining food is to lie in wait. 
It will always take advantage of any small depression, such as 
the print of a camel's foot, and, as it finds many of these 




HORNED VIPER. 



depressions in the line of the caravans, it is literally " a serpent 
by the way, an adder in the path." 

According to the accounts of travellers, the Cerastes is much 
more irritable than the cobra, and is very apt to strike at any 
object which may disturb it. Therefore, whenever a horseman 
passes along the usual route, his steed is very likely to disturb a 
Cerastes lying in^the path, and to be liable to the attack of the 
irritated reptile. Horses are instinctively aware of the presence 
of the snake, and mostly perceive it in time to avoid its stroke. 



626 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Its small dimensions, the snake rarely exceeding two feet in 
length, enable it to conceal itself in a very small hollow, and its 
brownish-white colour, diversified with darker spots, causes it to 
harmonize so thoroughly with the loose sand in which it lies 
buried, that, even when it is pointed out, an unpractised eye 
does not readily perceive it. 

Even the cobra is scarcely so dreaded as this little snake, 
whose bite is so deadly, and whose habits are such as to cause 
travellers considerable risk of being bitten. 

The head of the Viper affords a very good example of the 
venomous apparatus of the poisonous serpents, and is well worthy 
of description. The poison fangs or teeth lie on the sides of the 
upper jaw, folded back, and almost undistinguishable until lifted 
with a needle. They are singularly fine and delicate, hardly 
larger than a lady's needle, and are covered almost to their tips 
with a muscular envelope, through which the points just peer. 

The poison bags or glands, and the reservoir in which the venom 
is stored, are found at the back and sides of the head, and give to 
the venomous serpents that peculiar width of head which is so 
unfailing a characteristic. 

On examining carefully the poison fangs, the structure by which 
the venom is injected into the wound will be easily understood. 
Under a magnifying glass they will be seen to be hollow, thus 
afibrding a passage for the poison. 

When the creature draws back its head and opens its mouth to 
strike, the deadly fangs spring up with their points ready for action, 
and fully charged with their poisonous distillment. 



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THE VIPER, OR EPHEH. 



The Sand-Viper, or Toxicoa — Its appearanee and habits — Adder's poison — The 
Cockatrice, or Tsepha — The Yellow Viper — Ancient ideas concerning the Cock- 
atrice — Power of its venom. 



We now come to the species of snake which cannot be iden- 
tified with any certainty, and will first take the word epheh. 

Mr. Tristram believes that he has identified the Epheh of the 
Old Testament with the Sand- Viper, or Toxicoa. This reptile, 
though very small, and scarcely exceeding a foot in length, is a 
dangerous one, but its bite is not so deadly as that of the cobra 
or cerastes. It is variable in colour, and has angular white 
streaks on its body, with a row of whitish spots along the back. 
The top of the head is dark, and variegated with arrow-shaped 
white marks. 

The Toxicoa is very plentiful in Northern Africa, Palestine, 
Syria, and the neighbouring countries, and, as it is exceedingly 
active, is held in some dread by the natives. 

627 



628 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



Another name of a poisonous snake occurs several times in 
the Old Testament. The word is tsepha, or tsiphSni, and it is 
sometimes translated as Adder, and sometimes as Cockatrice. The 
word is rendered as Adder in Pro v. xxiii. 32, where it is said that 
wine " biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder." Even 




IK TOxiuOA. (Supposed to be the nper of Scripture.) 



in this case, however, the word is rendered as Cockatrice in the 
marginal translation. 

It is found three times in the Book of Isaiah. Ch. xi. 8 : " The 
weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den." Also, 
ch. xiv. 29 : " Eejoice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod 
of him that smote thee is broken: for out of the serpent's 
(nachash) nest shall come forth a cockatrice (tsepha), and his fruit 
shall be a fiery flying serpent." The same word occurs again 
in ch. lix. 5 : " They hatch cockatrice' eggs." In the prophet 
Jeremiah we again find the word : " For, behold, I will send 
serpents, cockatrices among you, which will not be charmed, and 
they shall bite you, saith the Lord." 

Around this reptile a wonderful variety of legends have been 
accumulated. The Cockatrice was said to kiU by its very look, 
" because the beams of the Cockatrice's eyes do corrupt the 



THE VIPER. 



629 



visible spirit of a man, which visible spirit corrupted all the 
other spirits coming from the brain and life of the heart, are 
thereby corrupted, and so the man dyeth." 

The subtle poison of the Cockatrice infected everything near 
it, so that a man who killed a Cockatrice with a spear fell dead 
himself, by reason of the poison darting up the shaft of the spear 
and passing into his hand. Any living thing near which the 
Cockatrice passed was instantly slain by the fiery heat of its 
venom, which was exhaled not only from its mouth, but its sides. 
For the old writers, whose statements are here summarized, con- 
trived to jumble together a number of miscellaneous facts in 
natural history, and so to produce a most extraordinary series of 
legends. 

I should not have given even this limited space to such puerile 
legends, but for the fact that such stories as these were fully 
believed in the days when the Authorized Version of the Bible 
was translated. The translators of the Bible believed most 
heartily in the mysterious and baleful reptile, and, as they saw 
that the Tsepha of Scripture was an exceptionally venomous 
serpent, they naturally rendered it by the word Cockatrice. 





THE FROG. 



The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with the plagues of 
Egypt — The severity of this plague explained — The Frog detestable to the 
Egyptians — The Edible Frog and its numbers — Description of the species. 



Plentiful as is the Feog tliroTighout Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, 
it is very remarkable that in the whole of the canonical books 
of the Old Testament the word is only mentioned thrice, and 
each case in connexion with the same event. 

In Exod. viii. we find that the second of the plagues which 
visited Egypt came out of the Mle, the sacred river, in the form 
of innumerable Frogs. The reader will probably remark, on 
perusing the consecutive account of these plagues, that the two 
first plagues were connected with that river, and that they were 
foreshadowed by the transformation of Aaron's rod. 

When Moses and Aaron appeared before Pharaoh to ask him 
to let the people go, Pharaoh demanded a miracle from them, as 
had been foretold. Following the divine command, Aaron threw 
down his rod, which was changed into a serpent, 
630 



THE FROO. 631 

Next, as was most appropriate, came a transformation wrouglit 
on the river by means of the same rod which had been trans- 
formed into a Serpent, the whole of the fresh-water throughout 
the land being turned into blood, and the fish dying and polluting 
the venerated river with their putrefying bodies. In Egypt, a 
partially rainless country, such a calamity as this was doubly 
terrible, as it at the same time desecrated the object of their 
worship, and menaced them with perishing by thirst. 

The next plague had also its origin in the river, but extended 
far beyond the limits of its banks. The frogs, being unable to 
return to the contaminated stream wherein they had lived, spread 
themselves in aU directions, so as to fulfil the words of the pre- 
diction : " If thou refuse to let them go, behold, I will smite all 
thy borders with frogs : 

" And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly, which shall 
go up and come into thine house, and into thy bed-chamber, and 
upon thy bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy 
people, and into thine ovens, and into thy kneading-troughs '' 
(or dough). 

Supposing that such a plague was to come upon us at the 
present day, we should consider it to be a terrible annoyance, 
yet scarcely worthy of the name of plague, and certainly not to 
be classed with the turning of a river into blood, with the hail 
and lightning that destroyed the crops and cattle, and with the 
simultaneous death of the first-born. But the Egyptians sufifered 
most keenly from the infliction. They were a singularly fasti- 
dious people, and abhorred the contact of anything that they 
held to be unclean. We may well realize, therefore, the effect 
of a visitation of Frogs, which rendered their houses unclean by 
entering them, and themselves unclean by leaping upon them ; 
which deprived them of rest by getting on their beds, and of 
food by crawling into their ovens and upon the dough in the 
k neading-troughs. 

And, as if to make the visitation still worse, when the plague 
was removed, the Frogs died in the places into which they had 
intruded, so that the Egyptians were obliged to clear their houses 
of the dead carcases, and to pile them up in heaps, to be dried 
by the sun or eaten by birds and other scavengers of the East. 

As to the species of Frog which thus invaded the houses of 
the Egyptians, there is no doubt whatever. It can be but the 



632 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Green, or Edible Frog {Bana esculenta), which is so well known 
for the delicacy of its flesh. This is believed to be the only 
aquatic Frog of Egypt, and therefore must be the species which 
came out of the river into the houses. 

Both in Egypt and Palestine it exists in very great numbers, 
swarming in every marshy place, and inhabiting the pools in 
such numbers that the water can scarcely be seen for the Frogs. 
Thus the multitudes of the Frogs which invaded the Egj'ptians 
was no matter of wonder, the only miraculous element being 
that the reptiles were simultaneously directed to the houses, and 
their simultaneous death when the plague was taken away. 

Frogs are also mentioned in Eev. xvi. 13 : " And I saw three 
unclean spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon, 
and out of the mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the 
false prophet." With the exception of this passage, which is a 
purely symbolical one, there is no mention of Frogs in the Kew 
Testament. It is rather remarkable that the Toad, which might 
be thought to afford an excellent symbol for various forms of 
evil, is entirely ignored, both in the Old and New Testaments. 
Probably the Frogs and Toads were all classed together under 
the same title. 





FISHES. 

Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of Fishes — The fishermen 
Apostles — Fish used for food — The miracle of the loaves and Fishes — The Fish 
broiled on the coals — Clean and unclean Fishes — The Sheat-fish, or Silurus — 
The Eel and the Mursena — The Long-headed Barbel — Fish-ponds and preserves 
— The Fish-ponds of Heshbon — The Sucking-fish — The Lump-sucker — The 
Tunny — The Coryphene. 



We now come to the Fishes, a class of animals which are 
repeatedly mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments, but 
only in general terms, no one species being described so as to 
give the slightest indication of its identity. 

This is the more remarkable because, although the Jews were, 
like all Orientals, utterly unobservant of those characteristics by 
which the various species axe distinguished from each other, we 
might expect that St. Peter aud other of the fisher Apostles would 
have given the names of some of the Fish which they were in 
the habit of catching, and by the sale of which they gained 
their living. 

It is true that the Jews, as a nation, would not distinguish 
between the various species of Fishes, except, perhaps, by com- 
parative size. But professional fishermen would be sure to dis- 

635 



636 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



tinguisli one species from another, if only for the fact that they 
would sell the best-flavoured Fish at the highest price. 

We might have expected, for example, that the Apostles and 
disciples who were present when the miraculous draught of Fishes 
took place would liave mentioned the technical names by which 
they were accustomed to distinguish the different degrees of the 
saleable and unsaleable kinds. 




PETER CATCHES THE FISH. 



Or we might have expected that on the occasion when St. Peter 
cast his line and hook into the sea, and drew out a Fish holding 
the tribute-mone^' in his mouth, we might have learned the par- 
ticular species of Fish which was thus captured. We ourselves 
would assuredly have done so. It would not have been thought 
sufficient merely to say that a Fish w-as caught with money in 
its mouth, but it would have been considered necessnrv^ to men- 
tion the particular fish as w^ell as the particular coin. 



FISHES, 687 

But it must be remembered that the whole tone of thought 
differs in Orientals and Europeans, and that the exactness re- 
quired by the one has no place in the mind of the other. The 
whole of the Scriptural narratives arc essentially Oriental in 
their character, bringing out the salient points in strong relief, 
but entirely regardless of minute detail. 

We find from many passages both in tlie Old and New Testa- 
ments that Fish were largely used as food by the Israelites, botli 
when captives in Egypt and after their arrival in the Promised 
Land. Take, for example, Numb. xi. 4, 5 : " And the children of 
Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat ? 

" We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely." 
Then, in the Old Testament, although we do not find many such 
categorical statements, there are many passages which allude to 
professional fishermen, showing that there was a demand for the 
Fish which they caught, sufficient to yield them a maintenance. 

In the New Testament, however, there are several passages in 
which the Fishes are distinctly mentioned as articles of food. 
Take, for example, the well-known miracle of multiplying the 
loaves and the Fishes, and the scarcely less familiar passage in 
John xxi. 9 : "As soon then as they were come to land, they 
saw a fire of coals there, and fish laid thereon, and bread. 

We find in all these examples that bread and Fish were eaten 
together. Indeed, Fish was eaten with bread just as we eat 
cheese or butter ; and St. John, in his account of the multiplica- 
tion of the loaves and Fishes, does not use the word " fish," but 
another word which rather signifies sauce, and was generally 
employed to designate the little Fish that were salted down and 
dried in the sunbeams for future use. 

As to the various species which were used for different pur- 
poses, we know really nothing, the Jews merely dividing their 
Fish into clean and unclean. 

Some of the species to which the prohibition would extend 
are evident enough. There are, for example, the Sheat-fishes, 
which have the body naked, and which are therefore taken out 
of the list of permitted Fishes. The Sheat-fishes inhabit rivers 
in many parts of the world, and often grow to a veiy consider- 
able size. They may be at once recognised by their peculiar 
shape, and by the long, fleshy tentacles that hang from the 



638 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



mouth. The object of these tentacles is rather dubious, but as 
the fish have been seen to direct them at will to various objects, 
it. is likely that they may answer as organs of touch. 




1. MUR^NA. 



2. Long-headed barbel. 



5. SlIEAT-FISH. 



As might be conjectured from its general appearance, it is one 
of the Fishes that love muddy banks, in which it is fond of 
burrowing so deeply that, although the river may swarm with 
Sheat-fishes, a practised eye is required to see them. 

As far as the Sheat-fishes are concerned, there is little need 
for the prohibition, inasmuch as the flesh is not at all agreeable 
in flavour, and is difiicult of digestion, being very fat and gelati- 
nous. The swimming-bladder of the Sheat-fish is used in some 
countries for making a kind of isinglass, similar in character to 
that of the sturgeon, but of coarser quality. 

The lowermost figure in the above illustration represents a spe- 
cies which is exceedingly plentiful in the Sea of Galilee. 



FISHES. 639 

On account of the mode in which their hody is covered, the 
whole of the sharks and rays are excluded from the list of per- 
mitted Fish, as, although they have fins, they have no scales, their 
place being taken by shields varying greatly in size. The same 
rule excludes the whole of the lamprey tribe, although the excel- 
lence of their flesh is well known. 

Moreover, the Jews almost universally declare that the 
Mura3na and Eel tribe are also unclean, because, although it has 
been proved that these Fishes really possess scales as well as 
fins, and are therefore legally permissible, the scales are hidden 
under a slimy covering, and are so minute as to be practically 
absent. 

The uppermost figure in the illustration represents the cele- 
brated Mur^ena, one of the fishes of the Mediterranean, in which 
sea it is tolerably plentiful. In the days of the old Eoman 
empire, the Mursena was very highly valued for the table. The 
wealthier citizens built ponds in which the Mursense were kept 
alive until they were wanted. This Fish sometimes reaches four 
feet in length. 

The rest of the Fishes which are shown in the three illus- 
trations belong to the class of clean Fish, and were permitted as 
food. The figure of the Fish between the Muraena and Sheat-fish 
is the Long-headed Barbel, so called from its curious form. 

The Barbels are closely allied to the carps, and are easily 
known by the barbs or beards which hang from their lips. 
Like the sheat-fishes, the Barbels are fond of grubbing in the mud, 
for the purpose of getting at the worms, grubs, and larvae of 
aquatic insects that are always to be found in such places. The 
Barbels are rather long in proportion to their depth, a peculiarity 
which, owing to the length of the head, is rather exaggerated in 
this species. 

The Long-headed Barbel is extremely common in Palestine, and 
may be taken with the very simplest kind of net. Indeed, in 
some places, the fish are so numerous that a common sack 
answers nearly as well as a net. 

It has been mentioned that the ancient Komans were in the 
habit of forming ponds in which the Muraenae were kept, and it is 
evident, from several passages of Scripture, that the Jews were 
accustomed to preserve fish in a similar manner, though they 
would not restrict their tanks or ponds to one species. 



640 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



The accompanying illustration represents Fishes of the Medi- 
terranean Sea, and it is probable that one of them may be 
identified, though the passage in wliich it is mentioned is only 
an inferential one. In the prophecy against Pharaoh, king of 
Egypt, the prophet Ezekiel writes as follows : " I will put hooks 
in thy jaws, and I will cause the fish of thy rivers to stick unto 
thy scales, and I will bring thee up out of the midst of tliy 
rivers, and all the fish of thy rivers shall stick unto thy scales" 
(xxix. 4). 




1. SUCKIXG-FISH. 



FISHES OF THE jrEDITEER-O'EAX. 

2. Tr^TST. 



3. COKYPHENE. 



Some believe that the prophet made allusion to the Sucking- 
fish, which has the dorsal fins developed into a most curious 
apparatus of adhesion, by means of which it can fasten itself at 
will to any smooth object, and hold so tightly to it that it can 
scarcely be torn away without injury. 

The common Sucking-fish is shown in the upper part of the 
illustration. 



FISHES. 641 

There are, however, other fi^h which have powers of adhesion 
which, although not so remarkable as those of the Sucking-fish, 
are yet very strong. There is, for example, the well-known 
Lump-sucker, or Lump-fish, which has the ventral fins modi- 
fied into a sucker so powerful that, when one of these fishes has 
been put into a pail of water, it has attached itself so firmly to 
the bottom of the vessel that when lifted by the tail it raised 
the pail, together with several gallons of water. 

The Gobies, again, have their ventral fins united and modified 
into a single sucker, by means of which the fish is able to secure 
itself to a stone, rock, or indeed any tolerably smooth surface. 
These fishes are popularly known as Bull-routs. 

The centre of the illustration is occupied by another of the 
Mediterranean fishes. This is the well-known Tunny, which fur- 
nishes food to the inhabitants of the coasts of this inland sea, and 
indeed constitutes one of their principal sources of wealth. This 
fine fish is on an average four or five feet in length, and sometimes 
attains the length of six or seven feet. 

The flesh of the Tunny is excellent, and the fish is so conspi- 
cuous, that the silence of the Scriptures concerning its existence 
shows the utter indifiTerence to specific accuracy that prevailed 
among the various writers. 

The other figure represents the Corypheue, popularly, though 
very wrongly, called the Dolphin, and celebrated, under that 
name, for the beautiful colours which fly over the surface of the 
body as it dies. 

The flesh of the Coryphene is excellent, and in the times of 
classic Rome the epicures were accustomed to keep these fish 
alive, and at the beginning of a feast to lay them before the 
guests, so that they might, in the first place, witness the magni- 
ficent colours of the dying fish, and, in the second place, might 
be assured that when it was cooked it was perfectly fresh. Even 
during life, the Coiyphene is a most lovely fish, and those who 
have witnessed it playing round a ship, or dashing off in chase 
of a shoal of flying-fishes, can scarcely find words to express 
their adniiiation of its beauty. 




FISHES. 



CHAPTER II. 

Various modes of capturing Fish — The hook and line— Military use of the hookt— 
Putting a hook in the jaws — The fishing spear — Different kinds of net-- The 
casting-net — Prevalence of this form — Technical words among fishermen — 
Fishing by night — The draught of Fishes — The real force of the miracle — 
Selecting the Fish — The Fish-fj-ate and Fish-market— Fish killed by a draught 
— Fishing in the Dead Sea — Dagon, the fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and 
Siam — Yarious Fishes of Egypt and Palestine. 



As to the various methods of capturing Fish, we will first take 
the simplest plan, that of the hook and line. 

Sundry references are made to angling, both in the Old and 
New Testaments. See, for example, the well-known passage 
respecting the leviathan, in Job xli. 1, 2: "Canst thou draw 
out leviathan with an hook? or his tongue with a cord which 
thou lettest down? 

" Canst thou put an hook into his nose ? or bore his jaw through 
with a thorn ?" 
642 



FISHES. 643 

It is thought that the last clause of this passage refers, not to 
the actual capture of the Fish, but to the mode in which they 
were kept in the tanks, each being secured by a ring or hook 
and line, so that it might be taken when wanted. 

On referring to the New Testament, we find that the fisher 
Apostles used both the hook and the net. See Matt, xvii 27 : 
" Go thou to the sea, and cast an hook, and take up the fish 
that first cometh up." Now this passage explains one or two 
points. 

In the first place, it is one among others which shows that, 
although the Apostles gave up all to follow Christ, they did not 
throw away their means of livelihood, as some seem to fancy, 
nor exist ever afterwards on the earnings of others. On the 
contrary, they retained their fisher equipment, whether boats, 
nets, or hooks ; and here we find St. Peter, after the way of 
fishermen, carrying about with him the more portable imple- 
ments of his craft. 

Next, the phrase " casting " the hook into the sea is exactly 
expressive of the mode in wliich angling is conducted in the sea 
and large pieces of water, such as the Lake of Galilee. The 
fisherman does not require a rod, but takes his line, which has 
a weight just above the hook, coils it on his left arm in lasso 
fashion, baits the hook, and then, with a peculiar swing, throws 
it into the water as far as it will reach. The hook is allowed to 
sink for a shoi-t time, and is then drawn towards the shore in 
a series of jerks, in order to attract the Fish, so that, although the 
fisherman does not employ a rod, he manages his line very much 
ac does an angler of our own day when " spinning " for pike 
or trout. 

Sometimes the fisherman has a number of lines to manage, 
and in this case he acts in a slightly dijBferent manner. After 
throwing out the loaded hook, as above mentioned, he takes a 
short stick, notched at one end, and pointed at the other, thrusts 
the sharp end into the ground at the margin of the water, and 
hitches the line on the notch. 

He then proceeds to do the same with all his lines in suc- 
cession, and when he has flung the last hook into the water, he 
sits down on a heap of leaves and grass which he has gathered 
together, and watches the lines to see if either of them is moved 
in the peculiar jerking manner which i,s characteristic of a 



644 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

" bite." After a while, he hauls them in successively, removes 
the Fish that may have been caught, and throws the lines into 
the water afresh. 

We now come to the practice of catching Fish by the net, a 
custom to which the various Scriptural writers frequently refer, 
sometimes in course of historical narrative, and sometimes by 
way of allegory or metaphor. The reader will remember that 
the net was also used on land for the purpose of catching wild 
animals, and that many of the allusions to the net which occur 
in the Old Testament refer to the land and not to the water. 

The commonest kind of net, which was used in the olden 
times as it is now, was the casting-net. This kind of net is 
circular, and is loaded all round its edge with weights, and sus- 
pended by the middle to a cord. When the fisherman throws 
this net, he gathers it up in folds in his arms, and, with a pecu- 
liar swing of the arms, only to be learned by long practice, 
flings it so that it spreads out and falls in its circular form upon 
the surface of fhe water. It rapidly sinks to the bottom, the 
loaded eircumference causing it to assume a cup-like form, 
enclosing within its meshes all the Fish that happen to be 
under it as it falls. When it has reached the bottom, the 
fisherman cautiously hauls in the rope, so that the loaded edges 
gradually approach each other, and by their own weight cling 
together and prevent the Fish from escaping as the net is slowly 
drawn ashore. 

This kind of net is found, with certain modifications, in 
nearly all parts of the world. The Chinese are perhaps supreme 
in their management of it. They have a net of extraordinary 
size, and cast it by flinging it over their backs, the huge circle 
spreading itself out in the most perfect manner as it falls on the 
water. 

At the present day, when the fishermen use this net they 
wade into the sea as far as they can, and then cast it. Id 
consequence of this custom, the fishermen are always naked 
while engaged in their work, wearing nothing but a thick cap in 
order to save themselves from sun-stroke. It is probable that 
on the memorable occasion mentioned by St. John, in chap, xxi., 
all the fishermen were absolutely, and not relatively naked, wear- 
ing no clothes at all, not even the ordinary tunic. 



FISHES. 



645 



That a great variety of uets was used by the ancient Jews is 
evident from the fact that there are no less than ten words to 
signify different kinds of net. At the present day we have 
very great difficulty in deciding upon the exact interpretation 
of these technical terms, especially as in very few cases are 
we assisted either by the context or by the etymology of the 
words. It is the same in all trades or pursuits, and we can 
easily understand how our own names of drag-net, seine, trawl, 
and keer-drag would perplex any commentator who happened 
to live some two thousand years after English had ceased to be 
a living language. 




MOIJE OF DRAGGING THE SEINE-KKT. 



The Sagene, or seine-net, was made in lengths, any number of 
which could be joined together, so as to enclose a large space of 
water. The upper edge was kept at the surface of the water by 
floats, and the lower edge sunk by weights. 

This net was always taken to sea in vessels, and when 
"shot" the various lengths were joined together, and the net 
extended in a line, with a boat at each end. The boats then 
gradually approached each other, so as to bring the net into a 
semicircle, and finally met, enclosing thereby a vast number of 
Fishes in their meshen walls. The water was then beaten, so as 



646 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

to frighten the Fishes and drive them into the meshes, and the 
net was then either taken ashore, or lifted by degrees on board 
the boats, and the Fish removed from it. 

As in a net of this kind Fishes of all sorts are enclosed, the 
contents are carefully examined, and those which are unlit foi 
eating are thrown away. Even at the present day much care is 
taken in the selection, but in the ancient times the fishermen 
were still more cautious, every Fish having to be separately 
examined in order that the presence both of fins and scales 
might be assured before the captors could send it to the market. 

It is to this custom that Christ alludes in the well-known 
parable of the net : " Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto 
a net that was cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind ; 

" Which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat down, 
and gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away" 

Lastly, we come to the religious, or rather superstitious, 
part played by Fish in the ancient times. That the Egyptians 
employed Fish as material symbols of Divine attributes we learn 
from secular writers, such as Herodotus and Strabo. 

The Jews, who seem to have had an irrepressible tendency to 
idolatry, and to have adopted the idols of every people with 
whom they came in contact, resuscitated the Fish-worship of 
Egypt as soon as they found themselves among the Philistines. 
We might naturally imagine that as the Israelites were bitterly 
opposed to their persistent enemy, who trod them under foot 
and crushed every attempt at rebellion for more than three 
hundred years, they would repudiate the worship as well as the 
rule of their conquerors. But, on the contrary, they adopted the 
worship of Dagon, the Fish-god, who was the principal deit}' 
of the Philistines, and erected temples in his honour. 

We find precisely the same worship at the present day in 
Siam, where Dagon has exactly the same form as among the 
Philistines of old. There is now before me a photograph of 
a great temple at Ayutia, the entrance to which is guarded by 
two huge images of the Fish-god. They are about sixty feet in 
height, and have both legs and feet like man, but in addition 
the lower part of the body is modified into the tail of a Fish, 
which, in common with the whole of the body, is covered with 
gilded scales. 



FTSHES. 



647 



In order that the reader may see examples of the typical Fish 
which are to be found in Egypt and Palestine, I have added 
three more species, which are represented in the following illus- 
tration. 

The uppermost figure represents the Nile Pekch. This Fish is 




1. NiLK Perch. 



of egypt and palestinl 
2. Surmullet. 



3. Star-oaz»k 



plentiful in the Nile, and in the mouths of many Asiatic rivers. 
It is brown above, silvery white below, and may be distinguished 
oy the armed gill-covers, and the three strong spines of the anal 
fin. The tongue is smooth. 

Immediately below the Nile Perch is the Star-gazer. 

This Fish is found in the Mediterranean, and derives its name 
from the singular mode in which the eyes are set in the head, 
so that it looks upwards instead of sideways. It is one of the 



648 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



mud-lovers, a fact which accounts for the peculiar position of 
the eyes. It is said to feed after the fashion of the fishing- 
frog — i.e. by burying itself in the mud and attracting other Fishes 
by a worm-like appendage of its mouth, and pouncing on them 
before they are aware of their danger. 

This is not a pretty Fish, and as it is very spiny, is not 
pleasant to the grasp, but its flesh is very good, and it is much 
valued by those who can obtain it. 

The last Fish to be noticed is the Surmullet, a Fish that is 
equally remarkable for the beauty of its colours and the excel- 
lence of its flesh. 







MOLLUSCS. 649 



MOLLUSCS. 



The purple of Scripture — The sac containing the purple dye — Curious change of 
colour — Mode of obtaining the dye — The Tyrian purple — The king of the 
Ethiopians and the purple robe — The professional purple dyers — Varrious words 
expressive of different shades of purple. 

Leaving the higher forms of animal life, we now pass to the 
Invertebrated Animals which are mentioned in Scripture. 

As may be inferred from the extreme looseness of nomen- 
clature which prevails among the higher animals, the species 
wliich can be identified are comparatively few, and of them but 
a very few details are given in the Scriptures. 

Taking them in their zoological order, we will begin with the 
Molluscs. 

We are all familiar with the value which was set by the 
ancients upon the peculiar dye which may be called by the 
name of Imperial Purple. In the first place, it was exceedingly 
costly, not only for its richness of hue, but from the great 
difficulty with which a sufficient quantity could be procured for 
staining a dress. Purple was exclusively a royal colour, which 
might not be worn by a subject. Among the ancient Eomans, 
during the times of the Caesars, any one who ventured to appear 
in a dress of purple would do so at the peril of his life. In 
the consular days of Rome, the dress of the consuls was white, 
striped with purple ; but the Csesars advanced another step in 
luxury, and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue. 

The colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the 

term " purple," i.e. a mixture of blue and red. It has but very 

little blue in it, and has been compared by the ancients to 

the colour of newly-clotted blood. It is obtained from several 

28 



650 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

Shell Fish belonging to the great Whelk family, the chief of 
which is the Murex brandaris. 

The shell is shaped something like that of a whelk, but is 
very smooth and porcelain-like, and is generally white, orna- 
mented with several coloured bands. It is, however, one of the 
most variable of shells, differing not only in colour but in form. 
It always inhabits the belt of the shore between tide-marks, and 
preys upon other Molluscs, such as the mussel and periwinkle, 
literally licking them to pieces with its long riband tongue. 

This tongue is beset with rows of hooked teeth, exactly like 
the shark-tooth weapons of the Samoan and Mangaian Islanders, 
and with it the creature is enabled to bore through the shells of 
mussels and similar Molluscs, and to eat the enclosed animal. 
It is very destructive to periwinkles, thrusting its tongue through 
the mouth of the shell, piercing easily the operculum by which 
the entrance is closed, and gradually scooping out the unfor- 
tunate inmate. 

Even the bivalves, which can shut themselves up between 
two shells, fare no better, the tongue of the Dog- Whelk rasping 
a hole in the hard shell in eight-and-forty hours. 

In order to procure the animal, the shell must be broken with 
a sharp blow of a small hammer, and the receptacle of the 
colouring matter can then be seen behind the head, and recog- 
nised by its lighter hue. 

When it is opened, a creamy sort of matter exudes. It is 
yellowish, and gives no promise of its future richness of hue. 
There is only one drop of this matter in each animal, and it is 
about sufficient in quantity to stain a piece of linen the size of a 
dime. 

The best mode of seeing the fuU beauty of the purple is to 
take a number of the Molluscs, and to stain as large a surface as 
possible. The piece of linen should then be exposed to the rays 
of the sun, when it will go through a most curious series of 
colours. The yellow begins to turn green, and, after a while, the 
stained portions of the linen will be entirely green, the yeUow 
i having been vanquished by the blue. By degrees the blue pre- 
dominates more and more over the yellow, until the linen is no 
more green, but blue. Then, just as the yellow yielded to the 
blue, the blue yields to red, and becomes first violet, then purple, 
and lastly assumes the blood-red hue of royalty. 



MOLLUSCS. 661 

The colour is very perinaiieiit, and, instead of fading by time, 
seems rather to brighten. 

In some cases the ancients appear not to have troubled them- 
selves with the complicated operation of taking the animal out 
of the shell, opening the receptacle, and squeezing the contents 
on the fabric to be dyed, but simply crushed the whole of the 
Mollusc, so as to set the colouring matter free, and steeped the 
cloth in the pulp. Tyre was one of the most celebrated spots 
for this manufacture, the " Tyrian dye " being celebrated for its 
richness. Heaps of broken shells remain to the present day as 
memorials of the long-perished manufacture. 

The value which the ancients set upon this dye is shown by 
many passages in various books. Among others we may refer 
to Herodotus. 

Cambyses, it appears, had a design to make war upon three 
nations, the Ammonians, the Carthaginians, and the Ethiopians. 
He determined to invade the first by land, and the second by 
sea ; but, being ignorant of the best method of reaching the Ethi- 
opians, he dispatched messengers to them, nominally as ambas- 
sadors, but practically as spies. He sent to the King of Ethiopia 
valuable presents — namely, a purple mantle, a golden necklace 
and bracelet, an elaborate box of perfumed ointment, and a 
cask of palm-wine, these evidently being considered a proof of 
imperial magnificence. 

The Ethiopian king ridiculed the jewels, praised the wine, 
and asked curiously concerning the dye with which the purple 
mantle was stained. On being told the mode of preparation, he 
refused to believe the visitors, and, referring to the changing 
hues of the mantle and to the perfume of the ointment, he 
showed his appreciation of their real character by saying that 
the goods were deceptive, and so were the bearers. 

The Hebrew word argaman, which signifies the regal purple, 
occurs several times in Scripture, and takes a slightly difiTerent 
form according to the Chaldaic or Hebraic idiom. 

For example, we find it in Exod. xxv. 4 : " This is the ofiering 
which ye shall take of them : gold, and silver, and brass, 

" And blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen," &c. &c. 

It occurs again in 2 Chron. ii. 7 : " Send me now therefore a 
man cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in 
iron, and in purple, and crimson, and blue." 



652 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE SNAIL. 



The Snail which, melteth — Kendering of the Jewish Bible — Theory respecting tii* 
tiack of the Snail — The Hebrew word ShaMul — Various Snails of Palestine. 



There is a very remarkable and not very intelligible passage 
in Ps. Iviii 8 : " As a snail wliich meltetb, let every one of them 
pass away." The Jewish Bible renders the passage in a way 
which explains the idea which evidently prevailed at the time 
when the Psalms were composed : " As a snail let him melt as 
he passe th on." 

The ancients had an idea that the slimy track made by a 
Snail as it crawled along was subtracted jfrom the substance of 
its body, and that in consequence the farther it crept, the smaller 
it became, until at last it wasted entirely away. The com- 
mentators on the Talmud took this view of the case. The 
Hebrew word shablul, which undoubtedly does signify a Snail 
of some kind, is thus explained : " The Shablul is a creeping 
thing: when it comes out of its shell, saliva pours from itsejf, 
until it becomes liquid, and so dies." 

Other explanations of this passage have been offered, but 
there is no doubt that the view taken by these commentators is 
the correct one, and that the Psalmist, when he wrote the 
terrible series of denunciations in which the passage in question 
occurs, had in his mind the popular belief regarding the gradual 
wasting away of the Snail as it " passeth on." 

It is needless to say that no particular species of Snail is 
mentioned, and almost as needless to state that in Palestine 
there are many species of Snails, to any or all of which these 
words are equally applicable. 




PEARL OY3TER. 



THE PEARL. 

The Pearl of Scripture— Wisdom compared to Pearl — Metaphorical uses of the 
Pearl — The Pearl of great price — Casting Pearls before swine. 

There is only one passage in tlie Old Testament in which can 
be found the word which is translated as Pearl, and it is certain 
that the word in question may have another interpretation. 

The word in question is gabish, and occurs in Job xxviii. 18. 
Treating of wisdom, in that magnificent passage beginning, " But 
where shall Wisdom be found, and where is the place of under- 
standing?" the sacred writer uses these words, "No mention 
shall be made of coral, or of pearls : for the price of wisdom is 
above rubies." 

653 



654 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

In consequence of the labour and research required for seeking 
wisdom, it was proverbially likened to a Pearl, and in this sense 
we must understand the warning of our Lord, not to cast Pearls 
before swine. The " pearl of great price " is another form of the 
same metaphor. 

The substance of Pearls is essentially the same as that which 
lines many shells, and is known as " mother of pearl." 

Although a large number of shell-fish secrete " mother of pearl," 
only a few of them yield true Pearls. The finest are obtained 
from the so-called Pearl oyster, an illustration of which is given 
on the preceding page. 

The Ancients obtained their Pearls chiefly from India and the 
Persian Gulf, where to this day the industry of Pearl-fishing is 
still carried on by the natives. 

The oysters containing the Pearls are brought up from the 
bottom of the sea by divers, who go out in boats to the fishing- 
grounds, which are some distance from the shore. 

Leaping naked into the water, carrying a heavy stone to enable 
him to sink quickly to the bottom, the diver descends to where the 
oysters lie, and secures as many of them as possible during the 
limited time that his breath lasts. On an average the divers 
remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though some 
can endure a much longer period. 

Sharks are the special dread of Pearl-divers, and many are 
carried off* by this fierce monster of the deep. To arm himself 
against their attack the diver carries a sharp knife, and instances 
are known of his having attacked and fairly defeated the dread 
destroyer in its own element. 

Not only is the diver exposed to the danger of attack from 
sharks, but his hazardous calling is necessarily exhausting, and, 
as a rule, he is a short-lived man. 

There are some kinds of fresh-water mussels which contain 
Pearls of an inferior quality; perhaps the most celebrated of 
these is the Pearl Mussel of the Chinese, who make a singular 
use of it. They string a number of globular pellets, and intro- 
duce them between the valves of the mussel, so that in course 
of time the creature deposits a coating of pearly substance upou 
them, and forms a very good imitation of real Pearls. 



INSECTS. 



THE LOCUST. 

Insects — The Locust — The two migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing — The 
Locust swarms — Gordon Cumming's account — Progress of the insect hosts — 
Vain attempts to check them — Tossed up and down as a Locust — Effect of the 
winds on the insect — The east and the west winds — Locusts used for food — An- 
cient and modern travellers — The food of John the Baptist. 

Of the Locusts there are several species in Palestine, two of 
which are represented in the accompanying plate. Those on the 
ground are the common Migratory Locusts, while those on the 
wing, which have long heads, are a species of Truxalis. 

The Locust belongs to the great order of Orthoptera, or 
straight-winged insects. They have, when fully developed, 
four wings, the two front being thick and membraneous, while 
the two hinder wings are large, delicate, translucent, and 
folded longitudinally under the front pair of wings when the 
insect is at rest. In the Locusts these characteristics are 
admirably shown. The appearance of a Locust when at rest 
and when flying is so different that the creature is at first 
sight scarcely recognisable as the same creature. When at 
rest, it is a compact and tolerably stout insect, with a dull 
though delicately coloured body ; but when it takes flight it 
appears to attain twice its previous dimensions. 

The front pair of wings, which alone were seen before they 
were expanded, became comparatively insignificant, while the 
hinder pair, which* were before invisible, became the most pro- 
minent part of the insect, their translucent folds being coloured 
with the most brilliant hues, according to the species. The body 
seems to have shrunk as the wings have increased, and to have 

28* 667 



658 STOBY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

diininislied to half its previous size, while the long legs that pre- 
viously were so conspicuous are stretched out like the legs of a 
flying heron. 

AH the Locusts are vegetable-feeders, and do great harm 
wherever they happen to be plentiful, their powerful jaws 
severing even the thick grass stems as if cut by scissors. But it 
is only when they invade a country that their real power is felt. 
They come flying with the wind in such vast multitudes that 
the sky is darkened as if by thunder-clouds; and when they 
settle, every vestige of green disappears off the face of the earth. 

Mr. Gordon Gumming once saw a flight of these Locusts. 
They flew about three hundred feet from the ground, and came 
on in thick, solid masses, forming one unbroken cloud. On all 
sides nothing was to be seen but Locusts. The air was full of 
them, and the plain was covered with them, and for more than 
an hour the insect army flew past him. When the Locusts settle, 
they eat with such voracity that the sound caused by their jaws 
cutting the leaves and grass can be heard at a great distance ; 
and even the young Locusts, which have no wings, and are 
graphically termed by the Dutch colonists of Southern Africa 
*' voet-gangers," or foot-goers, are little inferior in power of jaw 
to the fully- developed insect. 

As long as they have a favourable wind, nothing stops the 
progress of the Locusts. They press forward just like the vast 
herds of antelopes that cover the plains of Africa, or the bisons that 
once blackened the prairies of America, and the progress of even 
the wingless young is as irresistible as that of the adult insects. 
Eegiments of soldiers have in vain attempted to stop them. 
Trenches have been dug across their path, only to be filled up 
in a few minutes with the advancing hosts, over whose bodies 
the millions of survivors continued their march. When the 
trenches were filled with water, the result was the same; and 
even when fire was substituted for water, the flames were 
quenched by the masses of Locusts that fell into them. When 
they come to a tree, they climb up it in swarms, and devour 
every particle of foliage, not even sparing the bark of the smaller 
branches. They ascend the walls of houses 'that come in the 
line of their march, swarming in at the windows, and gnawing 
in their hunger the very woodwork of the furniture. 

We shall now see how true to nature is the terrible prophecy 




LOCUSTS. 



660 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

of Joel. " A day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds 
and of thick darkness, as the morning spread upon the mountains : 
a great people and a strong ; there hath not been ever the like, 
neither shall be any more after it, even to the years of many 
generations. 

"A fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame 
burneth : the land is as the garden of Eden before them, and 
behind them a desolate wilderness ; yea, and nothing shall 
escape them. 

" And the Lord shall utter His voice before His army : for His 
camp is very great " (Joel ii. 2 — 11). 

Nothing can be more vividly accurate than this splendid 
description of the Lociist armies. First we have the darkness 
caused by them as they fly like black clouds between the sun 
and the earth. Then comes the contrast between the blooming 
and fertile aspect of the land before they settle on it, and its 
utter desolation when they leave it. 

There is one passage in the Scriptures which at first sight 
seems rather o]3Scure, but is clear enough when we understand 
the character of the insect to which it refers : " I am gone like 
the shadow when it declineth : I am tossed up and down as the 
locust" (Ps. cix. 23). 

Although the Locusts have sufficient strength of flight to 
remain on the wmg for a considerable period, and to pass over 
great distances, they have little or no command over the direc- 
tion of their flight, and always travel with the wind, just as has 
been mentioned regarding the quail. So entirely are they at the 
mercy of the wind, that if a sudden gust arises the Locusts are 
tossed about in the most helpless manner ; and if they should 
happen to come across one of the circular air-currents that are 
so frequently found in the countries which they inhabit, they are 
whirled round and round without the least power of extricating 
themselves. 

In the account of the great plague of Locusts, the wind is 
mentioned as the proximate cause both of their arrival and their 
departure. See, for example, Exod. x. 12, 13 : 

"And the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over 
the land of Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon 
the land of Egypt, and eat every herb of the land, even all that 
the hail hath left. 



THE LOCUST. 661 

" And Moses stretched ibrth his rod over the land of Egypt, 
and tlie Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day, 
and all that night ; and when it was morning, tlie east wind 
brought the locusts/' 

Afterwards, when Moses was brought before Pharaoh, and 
entreated to remove the plague which had been brought upon 
the land, the west wind was employed to take the Locusts away, 
just as the east wind had brought them. 

" He went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord. 

" And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took 
away the locusts, and cast them into the Eed Sea ; there remained 
not one locust in all the coasts of Egypt" (Exod. x. 18, 19). 

Modern travellers have given accounts of these Locust armies, 
which exactly correspond with the sacred narrative. One tra- 
veller mentions that, after a severe storm, the Locusts were 
destroyed in such multitudes, that they were heaped in a sort 
of wall, varying fi'om three to four feet in height, fifty miles in 
length, and almost unapproachable, on account of the odour of 
their decomposing bodies. 

We now come to the use of Locusts as food. 

Very few insects have been recognised as fit for human food, 
even among uncivilized nations, and it is rather singular that 
the Israelites, whose dietary was so scrupulously limited, should 
have been permitted the use of the Locust. These insects are, 
however, eaten in all parts of the world which they frequent, 
and in some places form an important article of diet, thus 
compensating in some way for the amount of vegetable food 
which they consume. 

When their captors have roasted and eaten as many as they 
can manage to devour, they dry the rest over the fires, pulverize 
them between two stones, and keep the meal for future use, 
mixing it with water, or, if they can get it, with milk. 

We will now take a few accounts given by travellers of the 
present day, selecting one or two from many. Mr. W. G. Pal- 
grave, in his " Central and Eastern Arabia," gives a description 
of the custom of eating Locusts. " On a sloping bank, at a 
short distance in front, we discerned certain large black patches, 
in strong contrast with the white glisten of the soil around, and 
at the same time our attention was attracted by a strange 



662 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

whizzing, like that of a flight of hornets, close along the ground, 
while our dromedaries capered and started as though struck 
with sudden insanity. 

"The cause of all this was a vast swarm of locusts, here 
alighted in their northerly wanderings from their birthplace in 
the Dahna ; their camp extended far and wide, and we had 
already disturbed their outposts. These insects are wont to 
settle on the ground after sunset, and there, half-stupified by 
the night chill, await the morning rays, which warm them once 
more into life and movement. 

" This time, the dromedaries did the work of the sun, and it 
would be hard to say which of the two were the most frightened, 
they or the locusts. It was truly laughable to see so huge a 
beast lose his wits for fear at the flight of a harmless, stingless 
insect, for, of all timid creatures, none equal this * ship of the 
desert' for cowardice. 

" But, if the beasts were frightened, not so their masters. 
1 really thought they would have gone mad for joy. Locusts 
are here an article of food, nay, a dainty, and a good swarm of 
them is begged of Heaven in Arabia. . . . 

" The locust, when boiled or fried, is said to be delicious, and 
boiled and fried accordingly they are to an incredible extent. 
However, I never could persuade myself to taste them, what- 
ever invitations the inhabitants of the land, smacking their lipa 
over large dishes full of entomological ' delicatesses,' would make 
me to .join them. Barakat ventured on one for a trial. He 
pronounced it oily and disgusting, nor added a second to the 
first : it is caviare to unaccustomed palates. 

" The swarm now before us was a thorough godsend for our 
Arabs, on no account to be neglected. Thirst, weariness, all 
were forgotten, and down the riders leaped from their starting 
camels. This one spread out a cloak, that one a saddle-bag, a 
third his shirt, over the unlucky creatures, destined for the 
morning meal. Some flew away, whizzing across our feet ; 
others were caught, and tied up in sacks." 

Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, in his " Life in Abyssinia," mentions 
that the true Abyssinian will not eat the Locust, but that the 
negroes and Arabs do so. He describes the flavour as being 
something between the burnt end of a quill and a crumb of 
linseed cake. The flavour, however, depends much on the 



thp: locust. 



663 



mode of cooking, and, as some say, on the nature of the Locusts' 
food. 

Signer Pierotti states, in his " Customs and Traditions of 
Palestine," tliat Locusts are really excellent food, and that he 
was accustomed to eat them, not from necessity, but from choice, 
and compares their flavour to that of shrimps. 

Dr. Livingstone makes a similar comparison. In Palestine, 
Locusts are eaten either roasted or boiled in salt and water, but, 
when preserved for future use, they are dried in tlie sun, their 
heads, wings, and legs picked off, and their bodies ground into 
dust. This dust has naturally a rather bitter flavour, which is 
corrected by mixing it with camel's milk or honey, the latter 
being the favourite substance. 

We may now see that the food of John the Baptist was, like his 
dress, that of a people who lived at a distance from towns, and 
that there was no more hardship in the one than in the other. 
Some commentators have tried to j^rovd that he fed on the fruit 
of the locust or carob tree — the same that is used ii^ some 
countries for feeding cattle ; but there is not the least ground for 
such an explanation. The account of his life, indeed, requires 
no explanation ; Locust-dust, mixed with honey, being an ordinary 
article of food even at the present day. 




r/^:y 




THE BEE. 

The Honey Bee of Palestine — Abundance of Bees in the Holy Land — Habitations 
of the wild Bee — The honey of Scripture — Domesticated Bees and their hives — 
Stores of wild honey — The story of Jonathan — The Crusaders and the honey. 



Fortunately, there is no doubt about the rendering of the 
Hebrew word debSrah, which has always been acknowledged 
to be rightly translated as "Bee." 

The Honey Bee is exceedingly plentiful in Palestine, and in 
some parts of the country multiplying to such an extent that 
the precipitous ravines in which it takes up its residence are 
almost impassable by human beings, so jealous are the Bees of 
their domains. Although the Bee is not exactly the same 
species as that of our own country, being the Banded Bee 
yApis fasciata), and not the Apis mellifica, the two insects very 
mucli resemble each other in shape, colour, and habits. Both of 
them share the instinctive dislike of strangers and jealousy of 

664 



THE BEE. 



665 



intrusion, and the Banded Bee of Palestine has as great an 
objection to intrusion as its congener in this country. 

Several allusions are made in the Scriptures to this trait in 
the character of the Bee. See, for example, Deut. i 44 : " And 
the Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against 
you, and chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, 
even unto Horniah." All those who have had the misfortune 
to offend Bees will recognise the truth of this metaphor, the 




Amorites swarming out of the mountain like wild Bees oui 
of the rocky clefts which serve them as hives, and chasing the 
intruder fairly out of their domains. 

A similar metaphor is employed in the Psalms : " They com- 
passed me about; yea, they compassed me about; but in the 
name of the Lord 1 will destroy them. 



666 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

"They compassed me about like bees, they are quick as 
the fire of thorns, but in the name of the Lord I will destroy 
them." 

The custom of swarming is mentioned in one of the earlier 
books of Scripture. The reader will remember that, after 
Samson had killed the lion which met him on the way, he 
left the carcase alone. The various carnivorous beasts and birds 
at once discover such a banquet, and in a very short time the 
body of a dead animal is reduced to a hollow skeleton, partially 
or entirely covered with skin, the rays of the sun drying and 
hardening the skin UBtil it is like horn. 

In exceptionally hot weather, the same result occurs even in 
this country. Some years before this account was written there 
was a very hot and dry summer, and a great mortality took 
place among the sheep. So many indeed died that at last 
their owners merely flayed them, and left their bodies to perish. 
One of the dead sheep bad been thrown into a rather thick 
copse, and had fallen in a spot where it was sheltered from tht 
wind, and yet exposed to the fierce heat of the summer's sun. 
The consequence was that in a few days it was reduced to a 
mere shell. The heat hardened and dried the external layer of 
flesh so that not even the carnivorous beetles could penetrate it, 
while the whole of the interior dissolved into a semi-putrescent 
state, and was rapidly devoured by myriads of blue-bottles and 
other larvae. 

It was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung 
to it, and as soon as I came across it the story of Samson 
received a simple elucidation. In the hotter Eastern lands, the 
whole process would have been more rapid and more com- 
plete, and the skeleton of the lion, with the hard and horny 
skin strained over it, would afford exactly the habitation of 
which a wandering swarm of Bees would take advantage. At 
the present day swarms of wild Bees often make their habi- 
tations within the desiccated bodies of dead camels that have 
perished on the way. 

As to the expression " hissing " for the Bee, the reader must 
bear in mind that a sharp, short hiss is the ordinary call in 
Palestine, when one person desires to attract the attention of 
another. A similar sound, which may perhaps be expressed by 
the letters tst, prevails on the Continent at the present day. 



THE BEE. 667 

Signer Pierotti remarks that the inhabitants of Palestine are 
even now accustomed to summon Bees by a sort of hissing 
sound. 

Whether the honey spoken of in the Scriptures was obtained 
from wild or domesticated Bees is not very certain, but, as the 
manners of the East are much the same now as they were three 
thousand years ago, it is probable that Bees were kept then 
as they are now. The hives are not in the least like ours, 
but are cylindrical vases of coarse earthenware, laid horizontally, 
much like the bark hives employed in many parts of Southern 
Africa. 

In some places the hives are actually built into the walls 
of the houses, the closed end of the cylinder projecting into the 
interior, while an entrance is made for the Bees in the other end, 
so that the insects have no business in the house. When the 
inhabitants wish to take the honey, they resort to the operation 
which is technically termed " driving " by bee-niasters. 

They gently tap the end within the house, and continue the 
tapping until the Bees, annoyed by the sound, have left the hive. 
They then take out the circular door that closes the end of the 
hive, remove as much comb as they want, carefully put back 
those portions which contain grubs and bee- bread, and replace 
the door, when the Bees soon return and fill up the gaps in 
the combs. As to the wasteful, cruel, and foolish custom ol 
" burning " the Bees, the Orientals never think of practising it. 

In many places the culture of Bees is carried out to a very 
great extent, numbers of the earthenware cylinders being piled 
on one another, and a quantity of mud thrown over them in 
order to defend them from the rays of the sun, which would 
soon melt the wax of the combs. 

In consequence of the geographical characteristics of the Holy 
Land, which supplies not only convenient receptacles for the Bees 
in the rocks, but abimdance of thyme and similar plants, vast 
stores of bee-comb are to be found in the cliffs, and form no 
small part of the wealth of the people. 

The abundance of wild honey is shown by the memorable 
events recorded in 1 Sam. xiv. Saul had prohibited all the 
people from eating until the evening. Jonathan, who had not 
heard the prohibition, was faint and weary, and, seeing honey 
dripping on the ground from the abundance and weight of 



668 ^ STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

the comb, he took it up on the end of his staff, and ate sufficient 
to restore his strength. 

Thus, if we refer again to the history of John the Baptist 
and his food, we shall find that he was in no danger of starving 
for want of nourishment, the Bees breeding abundantly in the 
desert places he frequented, and affording him a plentiful supply 
of the very material which was needed to correct the deficienciei- 
of the dried locusts which he used instead of bread. 

The expression ''a land flowing with milk and honey" has 
become proverbial as a metaphor expressive of plenty. Those to 
whom the words were spoken understood it as something more 
than a metaphor. In the work to which reference has already 
been made Signer Pierotti writes as follows : — " Let us now see 
how far the land could be said to flow with milk and honey 
during the latter part of its history and at the present day. 

" We find that honey was abundant in the time of the 
Crusades, for the English, Avho followed Edward I. to Palestine, 
died in great numbers from the excessive heat, and from eating 
too much fruit and honey. 

" At the present day, after traversing the country in every 
direction, I am able to afi&rm that in the south-east and north- 
east, where the ancient customs of the patriarchs are most fully 
preserved, and the effects of civilization have been felt leasts 
milk and honey may still be said to flow, as they form a portion 
of every meal, and may even be more abundant than water, 
which fails occasionally in the heat of summer. . . . T have often 
eaten of the comb, which I found very good and of delicious 
fragrance." 

The Bee represented in the illustration is the common Bee of 
Palestine, Apis fasciata. The lowest figure in the corner, with 
a long body and shut wings, is the queen. The central figure 
represents the drone, conspicuous by means of his large eyes, 
that almost join each other at the top of the head, and for his 
thicker and stouter body, while the third figure represents the 
worker Bee. Near them is shown the entrance to one of the 
natural hives which are so plentiful in the Holy Land, and are 
made in the " clefts of the rocks." A number of Bees are 
shown issuing from the hole. 




THE HORNET AND ITS NEST. 



THE HORNET. 



The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture — Travellers driven away by Hornets — The 
Hornet used as a metaphor — Oriental symbolism — Sting of the Hornet. 

Still keeping to the hymenopterous insects, we come to the 
Hornet. There are three passages in which occurs the word 
tzirah, which has been translated as Hornet. In every case 
when the word is mentioned the insect is employed in a meta- 
phorical sense. See, for example, Exod. xxiii. 27, 28 ; "I will 
send my fear before thee, and will destroy all the people to 
whom thou shalt come ; and I will make all thine enemies turn 
their backs unto thee. 

" And I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out 
the Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite, from before thee." 

669 



670 STOUY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The Hornet affords a most appropriate image for such a 
promise as was made to the Israelites, and was one which they 
must have thoroughly comprehended. The Hornets of Palestine 
and the neighbouring countries are far more common than our 
own Hornets here, and they evidently infested some parts to such 
an extent that they gave their name to those spots. Thus the 
word Zoreah, which is mentioned in Josh. xv. 33, signifies the 
"place of Hornets." 

They make their nests in various ways ; some species placing 
them underground, and others disposing them as shown in the 
illustration, and merely sheltering them from the elements by a 
paper cover. Such nests as these would easily be disturbed by 
the animals which accompanied the Israelites on their journeys, 
even if the people were careful to avoid them. In such a case, 
the irritated insects rush out at the intruders ; and so great is 
the terror of their stings, that men and beasts fly promiscuously 
in every direction, each only anxious to escape from the winged 
foes. 

The recollection of such scenes would necessarily dwell in the 
memory of those who had taken part in them, and cause the 
metaphor to impress itseK strongly upon them. 

It is needless to say that the passages in question might be 
literal statements of facts, and that the various nations were 
actually driven out of their countries by Hornets. Let the 
insects be brought upon the land in sufficient numbers, and 
neither man nor beast could stay in it. It is not likely, how- 
ever, that such a series of miracles, far exceeding the insect- 
plagues of Egypt, would have been worked without frequent 
references to them in the subsequent books of the Scriptures ; 
and, moreover, the quick, short, and headlong flight of the attack 
of Hornets is a very different thing from the emigration which is 
mentioned in the Scriptures, and the long journeys which such 
a proceeding involved. 




ANTS ON THE MARCH. 



THE ANT. 



The Ant of Scripture — Habit of laying up stoi-es of food — The Ants of Palestine. 
and their habits — The Agricultural or Mound-making Ant^ — Preparing ground, 
sowing, tending, reaping, and storing the crop — Different habits of Ants — The 
winged Ants. 

One of the best-known and most frequently quoted passages of 
Scripture is found in Proverbs, chap, vi. 6-8 : " Go to the ant, 
thou sluggard ; consider her ways, and be wise : 

" Which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, 

" Provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in 
the harvest." 



In Palestine Ants abound, and the species are tolerably nume- 
rous. Among them are found some species which do convey seeds 
into their subterranean home ; and if their stores should be wetted 
by the heavy rains which sometimes prevail in that country, bring 
them to the outer air, as soon as the weather clears up, and dry 

them in the sun. 

671 



672 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

The writer of the Proverbs was therefore perfectly right when 
he alluded to the vegetable stores within the nest, and only 
spoke the truth when he wrote of the Ant that it was exceeding 
wise. Any one who wishes to test the truth of his words can 
easily do so by watching the first Ants' nest which he finds, the 
species of the Ant not being of much consequence. The nests of 
the Wood-Ant are perhaps the best suited for investigation, 
partly because the insect and its habitation are comparatively 
large, and, secondly, because so much of the work is done above- 
ground. 

The most wonderful Ant in the world is one which hitherto 
is only known in some parts of America. Its scientific name is 
Atta . malefacie7is, and it has been called by various popular 
names, such as the Mound-making Ant and the Agricultural 
Ant on account of its habits, and the Stinging Ant on account 
of the pungency of its venom. This characteristic has gained 
for it the scientific name of malefaciens, or villanous. 

The habits of this Ant were studied in Texas by Dr. Lincecum 
for the space of twelve years, and the result of his investigations 
was communicated to the linngean Society by C. Darwin, Esq. 
It is so extraordinary an account that it must be given i._ the 
narrator's own words : — 

"The species which I have named 'Agricultural' is a large 
brownish ant. It dwells in what may be termed paved cities, 
and, like a thrifty, diligent, provident farmer, makes suitable and 
timely arrangements for the changing seasons. It is, in short, 
endowed with skill, ingenuity, and untiring patience sufficient to 
enable it successfully to contend with the varying exigencies 
which it may have to encounter in the life-conflict. 

"When it has selected a situation for its habitation, if on 
ordinary dry ground, it bores a hole, around which it raises the 
surface three and sometimes six inches, forming a low circular 
mound having a very gentle inclination from the centre to the 
outer border, which on an average is three or four feet from the 
entrance. But if the location is chosen on low, flat, wet land 
liable to inundation, though the ground may be perfectly dry at 
the time the ant sets to work, it nevertheless elevates the 
mound, in the form of a pretty sharp cone, to the height of 
fifteen to twenty inches or more, and makes the entrance near 
the summit. Around the mound in either case the ant clears 



I 



THE ANT. 673 

the ground of all obstructions, levels and smooths the surface to 
the distance of three or four feet from the gate of the city, 
giving the space the appearance of a handsome pavement, as it 
really is. 

" Within this paved area not a blade of any green thing is 
allowed to grow, except a single species of grain-bearing grass. 
Having planted this crop in a circle around, and two or three 
feet from, the centre of the mound, the insect tends and culti- 
vates it with constant care, cutting away all other grasses and 
weeds that may spring up amongst it and all around outside of 
the farm-circle to the extent of one or two feet more. 

" The cultivated grass grows luxuriantly, and produces a heavy 
crop of small, white, flinty seeds, which under the microscope 
very closely resemble ordinary rice. When ripe, it is carefully 
harvested, and carried by the workers, chaff and all, into the 
granary cells, where it is divested of the chaff' and packed away. 
The chaff is taken out and throAvn beyond the limits of the 
paved area. 

" During protracted wet weather, it sometimes happens that 
the provision stores become damp, and are liable to sprout and 
spoil. In this case, on the first fine day the ants bring out the 
damp and damaged grain, and expose it to the sun till it is dry, 
when they carry it back and pack away all the sound seeds, 
leaving those that had sprouted to waste. 

** In a peach-orchard not far from my house is a considerable 
elevation, on which is an extensive bed of rock. In the sand- 
beds overlying portions of this rock are fine cities of the Agri- 
cultural ants, evidently very ancient. My observations on their 
manners and customs have been limited to the last twelve years, 
during which time the enclosure surrounding the orchard has 
prevented the approach of cattle to the ant-farms. The cities 
which are outside of the enclosure as well as those protected in 
it are, at the proper season, invariably planted with the ant-rice. 
The crop may accordingly always be seen springing up within 
the circle about the 1st of November every year. 

" Of late years, however, since the number of farms and cattle 
has greatly increased, and the latter are eating off" the grass much 
closer than formerly, thus preventing the ripening of the seeds, I 
notice that the Agricultural ant is placing its cities along the 
turn-rows in the fields, walks in gardens, inside about the gates, 
29 



674 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

&c., where they can cultivate their farms without molestation 
from the cattle. 

" There can be no doubt of the fact, that the particular species 
of grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted. 
In farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is care- 
fully divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it 
is growing. When it is ripe the grain is taken caxe of, the dry 
stubble cut away and carried off, the paved area being left un- 
encumbered until the ensuing autumn, when the same * ant- 
rice ' reappears within the same circle, and receives the same 
agricultural attention as was bestowed upon the previous crop ; 
and so on year after year, as I know to be the case, in all situa- 
tions where the ants' settlements are protected from gramini- 
vorous animals." 

In a second letter, Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry from 
Mr. Darwin, whether he supposed that the Ants plant seeds for 
the ensuing crop, says, "I have not the slightest doubt of it. 
And my conclusions have not been arrived at from hasty or 
careless observation, nor from seeing the ants do something that 
looked a little like it, and then guessing at the results. I have 
at all seasons watched the same ant-cities during the last twelve 
years, and I know that what I stated in my former letter is 
true. I visited the same cities yesterday, and found the crop of 
ant-rice growing finely, and exhibiting also the signs of high 
cultivation, and not a blade of any other kind of grass or weed 
was to be seen within twelve inches of the circular row of ant- 
rice." 

The economical habits of this wonderful insect far surpass 
anything that Solomon has written of the Ant, and it is not too 
much to say that if any of the Scriptural writers had ventured 
to speak cf an Ant that not only laid up stores of grain, but 
actually prepared the soil for the crop, planted the seed, kept the 
ground free from weeds, and finally reaped the harvest, the 
statement would have been utterly disbelieved, and the credi- 
bility not only of that particular writer but of the rest of 
Scripture severely endangered. 

As may be inferred from the above description, the habits of 
Ants vary greatly according to their species and the climate in 
which they live. All, however, are wonderful creatures ; and 
whether we look at their varied architecture, their mode of 



THE ANT. 



675 



procuring food, the system of slave-catching adopted by some, 
the " milking '* of aphides practised by others, their astonishing 
mode of communicating thought to each other, and their perfect 
system of discipline, we feel how true were the words of the 
royal naturalist, that the Ants are "little upon earth, but are 
exceeding wise." 

There is one point of their economy in which all known 




ANT OP PALESTINE, 



species agree. Only those which are destined to become per- 
fectly developed males and females attain the winged state. 
Before they assume the transitional or pupal condition, each spins 
around itself a slight but tough silken cocoon, in which it lies 
secure during the time which is consumed in developing its full 
perfection of form. 

When it is ready to emerge, the labourer Ants aid in freeing it 



676 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

from the cocoon, and in a short time it is ready to fly. Millions 
of these winged ants rise into the air, seeking their mates, and, 
as they are not strong on the wing, and are liable to be tossed 
about by every gust of wind, vast numbers of them perish. 
Whole armies of them fall into the water and are drowned or 
devoured by fish, while the insectivorous birds hold great fes- 
tival on so abundant a supply of food. As soon as they are 
mated they bend their wings forward, snap them off, and pass 
the rest of their lives on the ground. 

In consequence of the destruction that takes place among the 
winged Ants, the Arabs have a proverb which is appKed to 
those who are over-ambitious : " If God purposes the destruction 
of an ant, He permits wings to grow upon her." 



THE CRIMSON WORM. 

The scarlet or crimson of Scripture — The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine com- 
pared with that of Mexico — Difference between the sexes — Mode of preparing 
the insect. 

We now come to another order of insects. 

Just as the purple dye was obtained from a shell-fish, the 
scarcely less valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an 
insect. This is an insect popularly known as the Crimson Worm. 
It is closely allied to the cochineal insect of Mexico, which gives a 
more brilliant dye, and has at the present day nearly superseded 
the native insect. It is, however, still employed as a dye in 
some parts of the country. 

Like the cochineal insect of Mexico, the female is very much 
larger than her mate, and it is only from her that the dye is pro- 
cured. At the proper season of year the females are gathered 
off the trees and carefully dried, the mode of drying having 
some effect upon the quality of the dye. During the process of 



THE ANT. 677 

drying the insect alters greatly, both in colour and size, shrinking 
to less than half its original dimensions, and assuming a grejdsh 
brown hue instead of a deep red. When placed in water it soon 
gives out its colouring matter, and communicates to the water 




THE CRIMSON WORM. 



the rich colour with which we are familiar under the name of 
carmine, or crimson. This latter name, by the way, is only a 
corruption of the Arabic kermes, which is the name of the 
insect. 

The reader will remember that this was one of the three 
sacred colours — scarlet, purple, and blue — used in the vestments 
of the priests and the hangings of the tabernacle, the white not 
taking rank as a colour. 



678 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 



THE CLOTHES MOTH. 

The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth — Moths and garments — Accu- 
mulation of clothes in the East — Various uses of the hoarded robes — The Moths, 
the rust, and the thief. 

One of the insects mentioned by name in the Scriptures is the 
Moth, by which we must always understand some species of 
Clothes Moth. These are as plentiful and destructive in Pales- 
tine as in this country. 

Several references are made to the Moth in the Scriptures, 
and nearly all have reference to its destructive habits. The 
solitary exceptions occur in the Book of Job, " Behold, He put 
no trust in His servants ; and His angels He charged with folly : 
how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay, whose foun- 
dation is in the dust, which are crushed before the moth ?" 

In the New Testament reference is made several times to the 
Moth. "Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where 
moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through 
and steal" (Matt. vi. 19). 

Even to ourselves these passages are significant enough, but 
to the Jews and the inhabitants of Palestine they possessed a 
force which we can hardly realize in this country. In the East 
large stores of clothing are kept by the wealthy, not only for 
their own use, but as presents to others. At a marriage feast, 
for example, the host presents each of the guests with a wedding 
garment. Clothes are aiso given as marks of favour, and a present 
of " changes of raiment," i. e. suits of clothing, is one of the most 
common gifts. As at the present day, there was anciently no 
greater mark of favour than for the giver to present the very 
robe which he was wearing, and when that robe happened to be 
an official one, the gift included the rank which it symbolized. 
Thus Joseph was invested with royal robes, as weU as with the 



THE CLOTHES MOTH. 



P,70 



royal ring (Gen. xli. 42). Mordecai was clothed in the king's 
robes : " Let the royal apparel be brought which the king useth 
to wear, and the horse the king rideth upon, and the crown 
royal which is set upon his head. 




MORDECAI IS LED THROUGH THE CITY UPOK THE KING'S HORSE. 

"And let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of 
one of the king's most noble princes, that they may array the 
man withal whom the king deKghteth to honour, and bring him 
on horseback through the street of the city, and proclaim before 
him, Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delighteth 
to honour." (Esther vi. 8, 9.) 

The loose clothing of the East requires no fitting, as is the 
case with the tight garments of the West; any garment fits 
any man : so that the powerful and wealthy could lay up great 
stores of clothing, knowing that they would fit any person to 
whom they were given. An allusion to this practice of keeping 
great stores of clothing is made in Job xxvii. 26 : " Though he 
heap up silver as the dust, and prepare raiment as the clay ; 

" He may prepare it, but the just shall put it on, and the 
innocent shall divide the silver." 

So large was the supply of clothing in a wealthy man's house, 



680 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

that special chambers were set apart for it, and a special officer, 
called the " keeper of the garments " (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22), was 
appointed to take charge of them. 

Thus, when a man was said to have clothing, the expression 
was a synonym for wealth and power. See Isa. iii. 6 : " When a 
man shall take hold of his brother of the house of his father, 
saying. Thou hast clothing, be thou our ruler." 

The reader wiU. now see how forcible was the image of the 
Moth and the garments, that is used so freely in the Scriptures. 
The Moth would not meddle with garments actually in use, so 
that a poor man would not be troubled with it. Only those 
who were rich enough to keep stores of clothing in their houses 
need fear the Moth. 



THE SILKWOKM MOTH. 

Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted with Silk — Present cultivation of the 
Silkworm — The Silk-farms of the Lebanon — Silkworms and thunder. 

In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk 
is mentioned, but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be 
correct or not, except in one passage of the Eevelation : " And 
the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her ; for 
no man buyeth their merchandise any more : 

"The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, 
and of pearls, and fine Hnen, and purple, and silk." (xviii 
11, 12.) 

That the Hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early 
times is nearly certain, but it is probable that until compara- 
tively late years they only knew the manufactured material, and 
were ignorant of the source whence it was derived. As to the 
date at which silk was introduced into Palestine, nothing certain 
is known ; but it is most likely that Solomon's fleets brought 
silk from India, together with the other valuables which are 
mentioned in the history of that monarch. 



THE SILKWORM MOTH. 681 

At the present day silk is largely cultivated, and the silk- 
farmers of the Lebanon are noted for the abundance of the 
crop which is annually produced. The greatest care is taken 
in rearing the worms. An excellent account of these farms 
is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud in his "Druses of the 
Lebanon : " — 

" Proceeding onward, and protected from the fierce heat of 
the sun's rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines, we were 
continually encountering horseloads of cocoons, the fruit of the 
industry of the Druse silk-rearer. The whole process, from 
hatching the silkworms' eggs till the moment that the worm 
becomes a cocoon, is one series of anxiety and labour to the 
peasant. The worms are so delicate that the smallest change of 
temperature exposes them to destruction, and the peasant can 
never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until the cocoon 
is fairly set." 

After a long and interesting description of the multiplied and 
ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the 
armies of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements, 
the writer proceeds as follows : — 

"The peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and 
watching operations. Traditional superstition has inculcated 
in him a dread of the evil eye. If we stop and admire the 
wisdom displayed by the worm, it will, in his opinion, be pro- 
ductive of evil results ; either the cocoon will be badly formed, 
or the silk will be worthless. So, first clearing the place of all 
intruders, he puts a huge padlock on the door, and, locking the 
khlook (room in which the silkworms are kept), deposits the key 
in his zinnar, or waistband. 

" Next week he will come and take out the cocoons, and, 
separating them from the briars, choose out a sufficiency for 
breeding purposes, and all the rest are handed over to the 
women of his family. These first of all disentangle the cocoon 
from the rich and fibrous web with which it is enveloped, and 
which constitutes an article of trade by itself. The cocoons are 
then either reeled off by the peasant himself or else sold to 
some of the silk factories of the neighbourhood, where they are 
immediately reeled off, or are suffocated in an oven, and after- 
wards, being well aired and dried, piled up in the magazines of 
the factory. 

29* 



682 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ASIMALS. 



" Such is a brief account or history of these cocoons, of which 

we were continually encountering horseload after horseload. 

" As you will perceive, unless suffering from a severe cold in 
the head, the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most 
agreeable ; but this arises partly from the neglect and want of 
care of the peasants themselves, who, reeling oS basketful after 
basketful of cocoons, suffer the dead insects within to be thrown 




Steia>' Gkayi.i>'g. 



f palestine. 

Syrtax Oraitge-tip. 
Syklls Swaxlow-tail. 



about and accumulate round the house, where they putrefH' and 
emit noxious vapours." 

Although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the 
Silkworm to be described more fully, it may here be added that 
aU silk-growers are fuH of superstition regarding the welfare of 
the caterpillars, and imagine that they are so sensitive that they 
will die of fear. The noise of a thunderclap is, in their estima- 



FLIES. 683 

tioD, fatal to Silkworms; and the breeders were therefore accus- 
tomed to beat drums within the hearing of the Silkworms, in- 
creasing the loudness of the sound, and imitating as nearly as 
possible the crash and roll of thunder, so that the caterpillars 
might be familiar with the sound if the thunderstorm should hap- 
pen to break near them. 



FLIES. 

Flies of Scripture — Annoyance caused by the House-fly — Flies and ophthalmia — 
Signor Pierotti's account of the Flies — The sovereign remedy against Flies — 
Causes of their prevalence. 

There are two Hebrew words which are translated as "fly." 
One is zebub, and the other is arob, the latter being applied to 
the flies which were brought upon Egypt in the great plague. 
It is probable that some different species is here signified, but 
there is no certainty in the matter. Any species, however, would 
be a sufficient plague if they exceeded the usual number which 
infest Egypt, and which at first make the life of a foreigner a 
burden to him. They swarm in such myriads, that he eats flies, 
drinks flies, and breathes flies. 

Not the least part of the nuisance is, that they cluster in the 
eyes of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia, 
which is so fertile a cause of blindness, and so convey the 
infection with them. A stranger is always struck with the 
appearance of the children, who have quantities of these pests 
upon and about their eyes, and yet seem perfectly unaffected by 
a visitation which would wellnigh drive a European mad. 
Signor Pierotti writes feelingly on the subject : — 
" These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in Pales- 
tine, as I can vouch from my own experience. However large or 
however small they may be, a rabid and restless foe, they attack 
alike, and make themselves insufferable in a thousand ways, in 
every season and place, in the house and in the field, by day and 
by night. 



684 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

While I was encamped near the tents of the Bedawin, in the 
neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of Hebron, flies 
were brought in such numbers by the east wind that all, beasts 
and men, were in danger of being choked by them, as they crept 
into our ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My 
servant and I were the first to fly from the pest, as we were 
spotted all over like lepers with the eruption caused by their 
bites: the Bedawin themselves were not slow to follow our ex- 
ample. 

" The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old, 
except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the 
chiefs of the villages or tribes (answering to the kings of the 
Pentateuch and Joshua) to evacuate the country before them. 

" The Philistines had a special deity whom they invoked 
against these pests, Baalzebub, the God of Plies, whose temple 
was at Ekron. The reason of this is evident at the present day, 
for the ancient country of the Philistines is infested with insect 
plagues, as I experienced to my cost. 

'' As, however, we had no faith in Baalzebub, we were obliged 
to arm ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience. Many 
travellers bri'-g with them a perfect druggist's shop from Europe 
as a protection against these nuisances, and leave behind them 
this only efi&cacious remedy, patience. This I strongly recom- 
mend ; it is very portable, very cheap, and equally useful in. all 
climates. 

" It is especially valuable in the case of the insects, as they 
are found everywhere in greater or less numbers ; especially in 
the dwellings, where they are nourished by the carrion that lies 
about, the heaps of rubbish, the filth of the streets, the leakage 
of cesspools and sewers, the dirt in the houses, the filthy clothing 
worn by the people, and the kind of food they eat. Though the 
country of Baalzebub is deserted and enslaved, the flies are still 
abundant and free, self-invited guests at the table, unasked 
assistants in the kitchen, tasting everything, immolating them- 
selves in their gastronomic ardour, and forming an undesired 
seasoning in every dish." 



QNATES. 



685 



GNATS. 

The Gnat of Scripture — Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the camei, a 
typographical error — Probable identity of the Gnat and the mosquito. 

It has already been stated that only one species of fly is men- 
tioned by name in the Scriptures. This is the Gnat, the name 
of which occurs in the familiar passage, " Ye blind guides, which 
strain at a gnat and swallow a camel " (Matt, xxiii. 24). 




KOXIOUS F1.1ES OF PALESTINE. 

MOSQUITO. Camel Fly. 



I may again mention here that the words " strain at " ought 
to have been printed "strain out," the substitution of one for 
the other being only a typographical error. The allusion is 
made to a custom which is explained by reference to the preced- 



686 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

ing article on the fly. In order to avoid taking flies and othei 
insects into the mouth while drinking, a piece of thin linen stuff 
was placed over the cup, so that if any insects, as was usually 
the case, had got into the liquid, they would he '' strained out " 
hy the linen. 

Whether or not any particular species of insect was signified 
by the word " gnat " is very doubtful, and in all probability the 
word is only used to express the contrast between the smallest 
known insects and the largest known beasts. Gnats, especially 
those species which are popularly known by the word " mosquito," 
are very plentiful in many parts of Palestine, especially those 
which are near water, and are as annoying there as in other 
lands which they inhabit. 



THE LOUSE. 

Insect parasites — The plague of Lice —Its effect on the magicians or priests — The 
Hebrew word Chinnim — Probability that it may be represented by "tick " — 
Habits of the ticks, their dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and 
beast. 

We close the history of insects mentioned in Scripture with two 
parasites of a singularly disagreeable character. 

With respect to the former of them, we find it mentioned in 
the account of the great plagues of Egypt. After the two plagues 
of the waters and the frogs, both of which were imitated by the 
magicians, i.e. the priests, a third was brought upon Egypt, which 
affected the magicians even more than the people, for a reason 
which we shall presently see : — 

" And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out 
thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice, 
throughout all the land of Egypt. 

" And they did so ; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his 
rod, and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man 



THE LOUSE. 687 

and in beast ; all the dust of the land became lice throughout 
all the land of Egypt. 

" And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring 
forth lice, but they could not : so there were lice upon man and 
upon beast." 

Now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would 
have told with greater effect upon the magicians, by whose 
advice Pharoah had resisted the requests of Moses and Aaron. 

Living in a land where all, from the highest to the lowest, 
were infested with parasites, the priests were so much in advance 
of the laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one 
single noxious insect upon their persons, or in their clothing. 
The clothing, being linen, could be kept clean by frequent 
washing, while the possibility of the body being infested by 
parasites was prevented by the custom of shaving the whole of 
the body, from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, at 
least once in every three days. 

It may easily be imagined, therefore, how terrible this visita- 
tion must have been to such men. As swine to the Pharisee, as 
the flesh of cattle to the Brahmin, so w^as the touch of a parasite 
to the Egyptian priest. He was degraded in his own estimation 
and in that of his fellows. He could perform no sacred offices ; 
so that, in fact, all the idolatrous worship of Egypt ceased untU 
this particular plague had been withdrawn. 

We now come to a consideration of the insect which is signi- 
fied by the Hebrew word chinnim. Sir Samuel Baker is of 
opinion that the word ought to have been translated as " ticks," 
and for the following reasons : — 

After quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of 
Aaron's rod over the dust, and the consequence of that action, 
he proceeds as follows : " Now the louse that infests the human 
body and hair has no connexion whatever with dust, and, if 
subjected to a few hours' exposure to the dry heat of the burning 
sand, it would shrivel and die. But a tick is an inhabitant of 
the dust, a dry horny insect, without any apparent moisture in 
its composition. It lives in hot sand and dust, where it cannot 
possibly obtain nourishment until some wretched animal should 
lie down upon the spot, and become covered with these horrible 
vermin. 

" I have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with 



688 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

ticks that the ground was perfectly alive with them, and it 
would have been impossible to have rested upon the earth. In 
such spots, the passage in Exodus has frequently seemed to me 
as bearing reference to these vermin, which are the greatest 
enemy to man and beast. It is well known that from the size 
of a grain of sand, in their natural state, they will distend to the 
size of a hazel nut after having preyed for some days on the 
body of an animal" 

Granting that this suggestion be the correct one, as it cer- 
tainly is the most consistent both with actual facts and with the 
words of Holy Writ, the plague would lose none of its intensity, 
but would, if anything, be more horrible. Only those who have 
suffered from them can appreciate the miseries caused by the 
attack of these ticks, which cling so tightly that they can 
scarcely be removed without being torn in pieces, and without 
leaving some portion of their head beneath the skin of their 
victim. Man and beast suffer equally from them, as is implied 
in the words of Scripture, and, unless they are very cautiously 
removed, painful and obstinate is the result of their bites. 



THE FLEA. 



Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by them to tra- 
vellers — Fleas of the Lehanon — The Bey's bedfellows — The Pasha at the bath 
— Use of the word in Scripture. 



This active little pest absolutely swarms in the East. The 
inhabitants are so used to the Fleas that either the insects do not 
touch them, or by long custom they become so inured to their 
attack that the bites are not felt. 

But every traveller in Eastern lands has a tale to tell about 
the Fleas, which seem to be accepted as one of the institutions 
of the country, and to be contemplated with perfect equanimity. 
Miss Rogers, for example, in her " Domestic Life in Palestine," 
mentions how she was obliged to stand upon a box in order 



THE FLEA. 689 

tx) be out of the reach of a large company of Fleas that were 
hopping about on the floor ! 

Mr. Urquhart, experienced Orientalist as he was, found on one 
occasion that the Fleas were too strong for him. He had for- 
gotten his curtain, and was invaded by armies of Fleas, that 
marched steadily up the bed and took possession of their prey. 
The people were quite amused at his complaints, and said that 
their Bey could not sleep without a couple of hundred of them 
in his bosom. Mr. Urquhart suggests that these little creatures 
act as a wholesome irritant to the skin, and says that the last 
two mouthfuls of every meal are for the benefit of the Fleas. 

In order to show the perfect indifference with which the pre- 
sence of these little pests is regarded, I quote a passage from 
Mr. Farley's '' Druses of the Lebanon." He was in a Turkish 
bath, and was much amused at a scene which presented itself. 

" A man, whose skin resembled old discoloured vellum, was 
occupying himself with the somewhat undignified pursuit of 
pursuing with great eagerness something that, from the move- 
ment of his hands, seemed continually to elude him, jumping 
about and taking refuge in the creases and folds of his shirt, that 
was spread out over his lap as he sat cross-legged on his bedstead 
like a tailor on his board. This oddity was no less a dignitary 
than a Pasha." 




THE SCORPION. 

The Scorpions of Palestine — Habits of the Scorpion — Dangers of mud walls — 
Venom of the Scorpion — Scorpions at sea — The Scorpion whip, and its use — 
The Scorpion Pass. 



Scorpions are exceedingly common in Palestine, and to a novice 
are a constant source of terror until he learns to be accustomed 
to them. The appearance of the Scorpion is too well known to 
need description, every one being aware that it is in reality a kind 
of spider that has the venom claw at the end of its body, and not 
in its jaw. As to the rendering of the word ahrahhim as " Scor- 
pions," there has never been any doubt. 
690 ■ 



THE SCORPION. 691 

These unpleasant creatures always manage to insinuate them- 
selves in some crevice, and an experienced traveller is cautious 
where the Scorpions are plentiful, and will never seat himself in 
the country until he has ascertained that no Scorpions are 
beneath the stones on or near which he is sitting. Holes in 
walls are favourite places of refuge for the Scorpion, and are very 
plentiful, the mud walls always tumbling down in parts, and 
affording homes for Scorpions, spiders, snakes, and other visitors. 

The venom of the Scorpion varies much in potency according 
to the species and size of the creature, some of the larger Scor- 
pions being able to render a man ill for a considerable time, and 
even to kill him if he should be a sensitive subject. So much 
feared were the Scorpions that one of the chief privileges of the 
Apostles and their immediate followers was their immunity from 
the stings of Scorpions and the bite of venomous serpents. 

It is said, however, that after a person has been stung once by 
a Scorpion, he suffers comparatively little the second time, and 
that if he be stung three or four times, the only pain that he 
suffers arises from the puncture. Sailors also say that after 
a week at sea the poison of the Scorpion loses its power, 
and that they care nothing for the Scorpions which are sure 
to come on board inside the bundles of firewood. 

Those passages which mention the venom of the Scorpion are 
numerous, though most, if not all, of them occur in the New 
Testament. See Eev. ix. 5 : " And to them it was given that 
they should not kill them, but that they should be tormented five 
months, and their torment was as the torment of a scorpion, 
when he striketh a man." Also ver. 10 of the same chapter : 
" And they had tails like unto scorpions : and there were 
stings in their tails : and their power was to hurt men five 
months." 

There is, also, the well-known saying of our Lord, " If a son 
shall ask an ^gg, will he offer him a scorpion ?" (Luke xi. 12.) And 
in the preceding chapter of the same Evangelist Scorpions are 
classed with serpents in their power of injury : " Behold, I give 
unto you power to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the 
power of the enemy ; and nothing shall by any means hurt you." 

There is another reference to the Scorpion in the Old Testa- 
ment, which requires an explanation. It forms part of the rash 



692 STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS. 

counsel given to Kehoboam by his friends : " My father made 
your yoke heavy, and I vrill add to your yoke ; my father also 
chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." 
The general tenor of this passage is evident enough, namely, 
that he intended to be far more severe than his father had 
been. But his words assume a new force when we remember 
that there was a kind of whip called a Scorpion. This terrible 
instrument was made for the express purpose of punishing 
slaves, so that the mere mention of it was an insult. It consisted 
of several thongs, each of which was loaded with knobs of metal, 
and tipped with a metal hook, so that it resembled the jointed 
and hooked tail of the Scorpion. This dreadful instrument of 
torture could kill a man by a few blows, and it was even used 
in combats in the amphitheatre, a gladiator armed with a Scor- 
pion being matched against one armed with a spear. 



THE SPIDER. 

Spiders of Palestine. 



There are very many species of Spider in Palestine; some 
which spin webs, like the common Garden Spider, some which dig 
subterranean cells and make doors in them, like the well-known 
Trap-door Spider of Southern Europe, and some which have no 
webs, but chase their prey upon the ground, like the Wolf and 
Hunting Spiders. 



THE HORSE LEECH. 693 



THE HORSE LEECH. 



Signification of the word Alukah — Leeches in Palestine — The horse and the 

Leech. 



In Prov. xxx. 15 there is a word which only occurs once in the 
Scriptures. This is alukah^ which is translated as horse-leech. 
" The horseleech hath two daughters, crying, Give, give." 

The Leeches are very common in Palestine, and infest the 
rivers to such an extent that they enter the nostrils of animals 
who come to drink, and cause great annoyance and even danger. 
The following anecdote, related by Mr. H. Dixon in his " Holy 
Land," gives us a good idea of the prevalence of the Leeches, 
and the tenacity with which they retain their hold : — 

" At Beit-Dejan, on a slight twist in the road, we find the 
wheel and well, and hear a delicious plash and rustle in the 
troughs. To sUp from my seat to dip Sabeah's nose into the 
fluid is the work of a second ; but no sooner has she lapped up 
a mouthful of water, than one sees that the refuse falling back 
from her lips into the tank is dabbled and red. Opening her 
mouth, I find a gorged leech dangling from her gum. But the 
reptile being swept off, and the mare's nose dipt into the cooling 
stream , the blood still flows from between her teeth, and, forcing 
them open, I find two other leeches lodged in the roof of her 
mouth. 

" Poor little beast ! how grateful and relieved she seems, how 
gay, how gentle, when I have torn these suckers from her flesh, 
and soused the water about her wounds ; and how my hunting- 
whip yearns to descend upon the shoulders of that laughing and 
careless Nubian slave ! " 

Persons passing through the river are also attacked by them, 
and, if they have a delicate skin, suffer greatly. 




SPONGE AND COEAL. 



Use of the Sponge in Scripture — Probability that the ancient Jews were acquainted 
with it — Sponges of the Mediterranean — The Coral, and its value — Signification 
of the word Ramoth. 



There is little to be said on either of these subjects. 

Sponge is only mentioned with reference to the events of the 
Crucifixion, where it is related that a soldier placed a sponge 
upon hyssop, dipped it in vinegar (i.e. the acid wine issued to 
the Eoman soldiers), and held it to the Lord's lips. There is 

694 



SPONGE AND CORAL. 



695 



little doubt that the ancient Hebrews were fully aware of the 
value of the Sponge, which they could obtain from the Medi- 
icerranean which skirted all their western coasts. 

The Coral is mentioned in two passages of Scripture : " No 
mention shall be made of coral, or of pearls " (Job xxviii, 18). 
The second occurrence of the word is in Ezek. xxvii. 16 : "They 
occupied in thy fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, 
and fine linen, and coral, and agate." 

This Coral, which is described as being brought from Syria, 
was probably that of the Red Sea, where the Coral abounds, and 
where it attains the greatest perfection. 




JHE j£ 



ND. 



INDEX 



A. PAGE 

Addax 171-173 

Adder 628 

Ant 671 

agricultural 672 

habits of 674 

cocoon 675 

Aoudad 212-215 

Ape 387 

brought by Solomon 389 

worshipped in India 390-395 

Apis 145 

Ass 315 

dorhesticated 315 

royal 316 

treatment of. 319 

saddle 321 

in Cairo 323 

uses of 326 

wild 328 

B. 

Badger 96 

skins for tabernacle 96-112 



PAGB 

Badger skins for robes and sandals. 97 

nocturnal in habits....... 100 

Barbel, long-headed 639 

Bat 401 

Bear, Syrian 103 

omnivorous 1 06 

a dangerous enemy 108 

robbed of whelps 110 

mode of fighting 110 

Beden 233-237 

Bee 664 

banded 664 

hives 667 

honey 667 

Behemoth 372 

food 376 

hunted 380 

Bison 160 

Bittern 536 

haunts waste places 538 

cry 538 

nest 540 

Blue thrush 481 

Boer hunting the Hon.... 36-41 

697 



698 



INDEX. 



Bottles, skin 221-225 

Bubale 173-175 

Buffalo 149 

Bull 142 

wild 152 

hunted with nets 153 



O. 

Calf. 134 

fatted 135 

worshipped 146, 148 

Camel 248 

Arabian 248 

Bactrian 248, 286-290 

milk of 251 

power of carrying water 252 

flesh 254 

as beast of burden 255-258 

riding 259-268 

speed 269 

malice of. 273 

food 277-280 

foot 280 

hair and skin 283 

needle's eye 284 

Caspian emys 580 

hibernates 581 

terror to horses 581 

legends 582 

Cattle 132 

Cerastes 624 

Chameleon 602 

strength of grasp 607 



Chameleon, eyes 607 

change of color 608 

Chamois 211 

Chariots 300-311 

Chetah 42 

Cobra di capello 616 

Cockatrice 628 

Coney 366 

ruminant 368 

watchful 370 

Coral 695 

Cormorant 563 

fishing 564 

voracious 565 

in China 565 

nests 566 

Coryphene 641 

Crane , 549 

Crocodile 585 

description in Job 586 

worshipped by Egyptians 589 

seizing its prey 592 

eggs 595 

hunting 598 

Cuckoo , 487 

great spotted 488 

Cyprius 602 



Deer 238 

hunted 244 

watchfulness of. 244-246 

Deloul 268 



INDEX. 



699 



PAGE 

Dhubb 583 

Dishon 171 

Dove 489 

turtle 489,496 

Noah's 490 

in sacrifice 491 

carrier 493 

blue rock •. 495 

collared turtle 497 

palm 497 

Barbarv 497 



Eagle 430 

golden 433 

short-toed 434 

Egret 548 

Egyptian mastigure 583 

Elephant 349 

ivory 349 

in war 352 

in hunting 362 



F. 

Falcon, peregrine 445 

lanner 445 

Fallow deer 173-175 

Field-mouse 121-124 

Fishes 635-648 

apostolic fishermen 635 

as food 637 



Fishes, manner of catching 643 

as symbols 646 

Flea 688 

Flies 683 

god of 684 

Frogs 630 

plague of 631 

green 632 

edible 632 

Fox 76 

plentiful in Palestine 77 

feeds upontheslain 78 

Samson's foxes 78-85 



Q. 

Gazelle 163 

mode of defence 165 

manner of captui-e 166 

chaseof. 166-170 

Gecko 605 

Gier-eagle 419 

Gnats 685 

Goad 137 

Goat 217 

as food 217-219 

railking-scene 220 

hair for clothing 220 

skin bottles 221-225 

kneading-troughs 225 

scape-goat 226 

intractable 227 

separated from sheep 227-229 



700 



INDEX. 



Hamster 124 

Hare 126 

not a ruminant 127 

two species in Palestine 131 

Hart 255 

Hawk 447 

sparrow 448 

harrier 451 

white 453 

dove 453 

blue 453 

ring-tailed 453 

night 462 

Herdsmen 144 

Arab 177 

Heron 542 

as food 542 

sociable 544 

flight 546 

nest 547 

Hind 255 

Hippopotamus 374 

Honey 667 

Hoopoe 476 

legend of 477 

Hornet 669 

Horse 291 

Arab 291 

hoofs 295 

sale of Arab 296-300 

chariots 300 

Horse-leech 693 

House-top 480 



Hyacinthine gallinule 560 

Hyaena 85 

as scavenger 86-88 

haunting graves 88 

odour of 89 

superstitions concerning 90 

Hyrax 366 



Ibex 233-236 

Ibis, white or sacred 562 

Ichneumon 596 

Insects 657 

Ivorv 349-352 



Jackal 76 

Jerboa 125 



K. 



Kestrel . . . . 
Kite 

red.... 

black. 



449 
440 
441 
442 



Kneading-troughs 225 



L. 

Lammergeier 411 

food 414 



INDEX. 



701 



Lammergeier, bone-breaker 414 

Lapwing 476 

Leviathan 585 

Lizard 602 

Locust 657 

swarms 658 

plague of. 660 

as food 661 

Louse 686 

Lump-fish 641 



M. 

Mole 114 

hard to capture 116 

frequents ruins 117 

food 118 

Molluscs 648 

Monitor 605 

Nilotic 610 

land 610 

Monkey 387 

Mosquito 686 

Mouflon 215 

Mouse 119 

voracity 119 

Mule 333 

ridden by kings 335 

perverse 336 

Muraena 639 

Moth, clothes 678 

silkworm 680 



N. 

Night-hawk 462 

Night-jar 462 

cry 464 

Nile-perch 647 

Nineveh, sculptures of 34 



O. 

Oryx 154-156 

Osprey 436 

fishing 436 

flight 438 

Ossifrage 411 

Ostrich 523 

neglect of young 526-528 

nest in sand 526 

chase 529 

scent 530 

speed 531 

as food ... 532 

eggs 534 

cry 531 

Ounce 42 

Owl 454 

use in bird-catching... 455 

little 455 

barn 455 

screech 456 

great 456 

Egyptian eagle 458 

European eagle. 458 

Virginian eared 458 

Ox 133 



702 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Ox, Stalled 133 

yoke 136 

plough 136 

goad 137 

threshing 138 

cart 139 

.pasturage 141 

worshipped 148 



Palestine 470 

Partridge 505 

desert 507 

Passover 204 

Samaritan 205-210 

Peacock 501 

Pearl 653 

Pelican 567 

pouch 569 

feeding young 570 

legends 570 

flight 572 

crested 573 

Pigeon 489 

Plough 136 

Porcupine 113 

Poultry 498 

Purple dye 649 

Pygarg 171 



Q. 



Quail 



509 



Quail, sent to Israelites 510 

flight 511 

as food 511 

mode of capture 512 



Earns' horns 201-203 

Paven 516 

in ark 516 

sent to Elijah 518 

notices of, in Talmud 519 

ashy-necked 520 

in Jerusalem 520 



S. 

Scheltopusic 603 

Scorpion 690 

Serpents 613 

motion 614 

poison 615 

sluggish.. 620 

anecdotes of. 620 

Sheat-fishes 637 

Sheep 177 

pasturage 177 

watering 180 

names 186 

folds 189-191 

dogs 191 

broad-tailed 194 

uses of 197 



INDEX. 



703 



PAGE 

Sheep, in sacrifice 203 

Shepherds 185 

sling 185 

care of flock 188 

Shephiphon 624 

Silkworm ^..... 681 

Skink 603 

Snail 652 

Snake, glass 603 

dart 616 

charmer 617 

Sparrow 479 

on house-tops 480 

value of. 483 

caught with nets 484 

nests 485 

tree <. 486 

Spider 692 

Sponge 694 

Star-gazer 647 

Stork 553 

sacred 554 

migratory 556 

care of young 557 

black 558 

Sucking-fish 640 

Surmullet 648 

Swallow 466 

swift 470, 474 

Swan 560 

Swine 337 

prohibited to Jews 337 

hated 338 

wild 334 



T. 

Threshing 138 

Tortoise 577 

as food 577 

slow-motioned. 579 

Toxicoa 627 

Tunnv 641 



Unicorn , 158 

a real animal 159 



Viper, horned 624 

sand 627 

Vulture, Egyptian 419 

scavengers 421 

griffon 423 



W. 

Wanderoo 395-400 

Weasel 92 

fond of eggs 94 

story of owl and weasel 94 

Wild bull 152 

goat 233 

ass 328 

boar 344 

Wind-hover 449 

Wolf 69 



704 



INDEX. 



WolfjOnlymentioned symbolically 69 

hunting in packs 71 

fierceness of. 71 

special enemy of sheep 72 

tamed by a monk 75 i Yoke 



FAOB 

Wool 199 

Worm, crimson 676 



Y. 



THE 

HOME EDITION 

OF THE 

Story of the Bible 

Surpasses in Value and Completeness All Former Editions 
of this Standard Work. 



It contains fine Colored Illustrations. 

It contains a Map of the Bible Lands. 

It contains a Steel Plate Engravings after Rembrandt 
(engraved expressly for the Frontispiece). 

It is printed on extra heavy paper, and bound in rich 
and attractive style. 



THE HOME EDITION of the story of the Bible. 

Gives admirers of the book an opportunity to procure 
it in a handsomer form, either for presentation to friends 
or for use at home. 

The COVER of this edition bears an appropriate and 
ornamental design in gold and color. The inside is no 
less attractive than the outside. On opening it, the Illu- 
minated Presentation Page first meets the eye. This 
is followed by the beautiful Steel Plate Engraving of 
Jacob's Dream, as a Frontispiece. A double page Col- 
ored Map comes next, showing countries and places men- 
tioned in the Bible. Six Richly Colored Plates, with 
300 Engravings, illustrating the principal scenes and 
events narrated in the book, are distributed throughout 
its pages, from beginning to end. 



FOR SALE 

by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained. 



The Story of the Gospel. 

By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible." 

360 Pages. l6mo. With 150 Illustrations, and a 
Frontispiece in Colors. 

The New Testament in simple form for CMldren. Written 

in Language easy to understand. Printed in large, 

plain type, and filled with Pictures. 



lOOth THOUSAND NOW SELLING. 



The Author of the " Story of the Bible," after pub- 
lishing that work, found that a smaller and still simpler 
book on the New Testament alone, was needed. 

He therefore prepared the " Story of the Gospel," 
which contains the Life of Christ written in a style easily 
understood by children, and illustrated by a large number 
of excellent wood engravings. 



Front Mev, 31. A, GOODELL, Xorthivood, Iowa, 

I am much pleased with the " Story of the Gospel." The 
illustrations are excellent. The Story is told in beautiful language, 
and in such a way that very difficult points are made plain even to 
children. It is also a good commentary on the Word for older per- 
sons, and should be in every family. 

I lent my copy of the "Story of the Gospel" to the teacher 
of the Primary Department in our pubhc school, who used it instead 
of the Bible in opening school, and after a few days said she could 
not do without it. 



FOR SALE 

by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained. 



FIRST STEPS 

FOR LITTLE FEET IN GOSPEL PATHS. 

328 Pages. l6mo. With Colored Frontispiece and 
140 Illustrations. 



By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible." 



There still remained one class of learners whose wants 
were not supplied by either the Story of the Bible or the 
Story of the Gospel. These were the little ones in the Nur- 
sery, the Infant School, and the Kinder-Garten. For their 
instruction the author has prepared a third book, FiRSi 
Steps for Little Feet in Gospel Paths. This book is 
arranged on a different plan from either of the preceding. 
Instead of being divided into Chapters, it consists of sepa« 
rate passages or Lessons, most of them quite short, and 
each one complete in itself. Each Lesson is followed by 
Questions so simple that the little hearers, if attentive when 
the passage is read, may readily answer them. 

From Robert W. Fenwick, President of the Washington Frbebel Society, 
Washington, D. C. 

To THE Publisher : I am the grateful recipient of a nicely-bound, 
well-printed and illustrated work entitled " First Steps." Upon an 
examination of it, I feel that every Kinder-Garten teacher should pos- 
sess this gem of a book for little children. Its simple presentation of 
great truths and facts, in words as well as in pictures, should be brought 
home to the heart of every child by the parent or teacher ; and, this 
done, the coming generation will be wiser and better than the past. 
I am thankful (as President of the Washington Froebel Society, having 
under its care the Bethany Free Kinder-Gartenj that this book has 
reached me. 

FOR SALE by the same Dealer from whom this booic is obtained. 



NE^AT LIGHTS 

— ON — 

OLD PATHS. 

By Charles Foster, Author of the " Story of the Bible," Etc. 
QUARTO, 496 PAGES. 350 ILLUSTRATIONS. 



The author of the stories contained in this beautiful book 
has given life and power of speech to many of the inanimate 
objects which we meet in every-day life. 

The Well in the Yard, the Gate and Gate-Post, the Brook 
and Water-Wheel, with other familiar things, give their impres- 
sions, in these charming and original tales, of what takes place 
around them, and speak to one another with audible voice. 

If the reader will listen to what they say, he will learn some 
valuable lessons, and perhaps receive advice that will help him 
in days to come. 

Many familiar places and oft-trodden paths will be given a 
new interest by reading some of the stories contained in this 
book. 

Objects that have been familiar for years, and which have 
never caused a moment's reflection as they were carelessly passed 
by, will now have a new significance, and whenever seen will 
connect themselves with the imaginary parts they play in this 
volume. 

In appearance the book is an unusually handsome one, 
being TASTEFULLY BOUND AND PROFUSELY ILLUS- 
TRATED. It contains 350 PICTURES which in artistic 
merit, interest, and faithful portrayal of the scenes described 
in the text, are unsurpassed by any book of its class. 



Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa. 



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NE^A^ LIGHTS 



ON 



OLID le^TIIS. 

By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the '' Story of the Bible," Etc. 
QUARTO, 496 PAGES. 350 IL.LUSTRATIOi\S. 



OfRce of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa. 



BIBLE PICTURES 

AND 

WHAT THEY TEACH US. 

Containing 312 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments, 

WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS 

By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the " Story of the Bible." 



Quarto, 232 Pages, 312 Engravings, printed on extra heavy calendered paper, and 
bound in English cloth, black side stamp, gilt title on back. 



The Collection of Bible Pictures contained in this book is probably 
one of the most complete that has ever been brought together in one 
volume. 

In preparing the work, the greatest care has been observed to use 
only such designs as will adequately illustrate the Bible scenes and 
fittingly portray the principal events in Bible history. 

It has been a matter of great difficulty to obtain so large a number 
of pictures of the necessary merit, as illustrations of Bible subjects 
present peculiar difficulties to the artist. While preserving the free- 
dom of style and vigor of treatment necessary to give life to his de- 
signs and reality to the varied scenes of the Scripture narrative, he 
must preserve for them a feeling of reverence and endow them with a 
dignity worthy of their sacred character. 

A large number of the pictures in this book are reproduced from 
designs by foreign artists who have been celebrated for their skill in 
this branch of art. Others are by artists in this country. All the pic- 
tures have been personally selected by, or else drawn under the 
direction of, the author, who has spent years of labor and thousands 
of dollars in forming this collection. 

Many of the engravings in " Bible Pictures " were first obtained 
and used for illustrating the " Story of the Bible " and the " Story of 
the Gospel," two former books by the same author. Other new en- 
gravings have been added, and the whole set, three hundred and 
TWELVE in number, are now brought together in this one volume, 
in which the broad pages (8 x 9^ inches), fine, heavy paper and care- 
ful printing, display their artistic excellence to the best advantage. 

The book forms a complete pictorial history of the main portion of 
the Bible. Many parts are so fully illustrated that the narrative can 
be followed and understood by merely looking at the series of pic- 
tures which illustrate them, so that children unable to read may obtain 
a fair idea of the nature and sequence of Bible events, by simply 
turning over the pages. The book, however, is by no means merely 
a picture book. A lucid and brief explanation, written by the author 
of the " Story of the Bible," accompanies each picture, on the same 
page, or on the page immediately facing it, so that the picture and 
the explanation appear simultaneously to the eye. 



FOR SALE by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained. 




BIBLE i*iotxjhih:^. 



AND 



WHAT THEY TEACH US. 

A Book containing 312 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments, 
with brief descriptions. 

By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible," etc. 



Quarto, 232 Pages, 312 Engravings, printed on extra heavy calendered paper and bound 
in English oloth, ornamental side and back stamp. 



Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa. 



STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIiVIALS. 

» 704 Pages. 300 Illustrations. 

» 

This book contains a description of each animal mentioned in the 
Bible, and tells of its appearance, its habits and the use to which it was 
put by mankind. 

The importance of understanding the nature of these animals, as a 
means of making clear the Scriptures, will be readily seen when it is re- 
membered how frequently they are mentioned in the Bible, and how dif- 
ferent many of them must be from those which we are accustomed to see. 

Some passages in the Bible which have formerly possessed little or 
no meaning to the ordinary reader will have a new significance after 
the " Story of the Bible Animals " has been read, and the de- 
scriptions which it contains of the animals of the East, and the habits 
of Eastern people, have become famihar. 

The book is not only interesting and instructive from the stories 
which it contains on the ever-popular subject of Natural History, but it 
also presents a vivid description of life in the Bible lands. 

It describes the appearance at the present time of many of the places 
mentioned in the Bible, as well as the manners and customs of the peo- 
ple who dwell there. 

Adventures of modern travellers in these unfamiliar and seldom- 
trodden paths form an important part of the book and are of absorb- 
ing interest, presenting to the reader a graphic picture of life in the 
Holy Land as it is to-day. 

In the never-changing East this is in many respects a counterpart 
of the times in which the Bible was written. The Arab as he speeds 
across the desert upon his swift dromedary, or sits at the door of his 
tent watching his flocks and herds, retains many of the customs which 
prevailed in the time of Abraham. 

The wild animals of these countries still roam through the forests and 
are hunted and slain by mankind. The crocodile and hippopotamus of 
the Nile are yet found in that mighty river, and yield their lives to the 
courage and skill of modern hunters as did those of old. 

These scenes are vividly portrayed in the ** Story of the Bible 
Animals " by travellers who have taken an active part in the ad- 
ventures which they narrate, and who are thus able to adequately de- 
scribe incidents that will be new and strange to most readers. 

The book is also a valuable commentary on many portions of the 
Bible, for without some knowledge of the matters upon which it treats, 
the point of many passages of Scripture must either be entirely missed 
or else wrongly interpreted. 

Office x)f Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



029 822 329 6 



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